-t    A. 


COLLEGE   HISTORIES   OF   ART 

EDITED    HY 

JOHN   C.  VAN    DYKE,   L.H.D. 


HISTORY    OF    ARCHITECTURE 

A.    D.    F.    HAMLIN 


COLLEGE  HISTORIES  OF  ART 

EDITED    BV 

JOHN   C.  VAN    DYKE,  L.H.D. 

PROFESSOR  OF  THE  HISTORY  OF  ART  IN  RUTGEKS 
COI.LKCE 


HISTORY  OF  PAINTING 

By  JOHN  C.  VAN  DYKE,  the  Editor  of  the  Series.  With 
Frontispiece  and  no  Illustrations,  Bibliographies,  and 
Index.  Crown  8vo,  $1.50. 

HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

By  ALKRF.D  D.  F.  HAMI.IN,  A.M.,  Professor  of  the  History 
of  Architecture,  Columbia  University,  New  York.  With 
Frontispiece  and  235  Illustrations  and  Diagrams,  Biblio- 
graphies, Glossary,  Index  of  Architects,  and  a  General 
Index.  Crown  8vo,  $2  oo. 

HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

By  ALLAN  MAKOUAND,  Ph.D.,  LH.D.,  and  ARTHUK  L. 
FKOTHIN<;HAM,  Jr.,  Ph.D.,  Professors  of  Archaeology 
and  the  History  of  Art  in  Princeton  University.  With 
Frontispiece  and  112  Illustrations.  Crown  8vo,  $1.50. 


K        3 

S     ii 


A  TEXT-BOOK 


OF    THE 


A.   D.  F.  HAMLIN,  A.M. 

PROFESSOR  OF  THE   HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE   IN   COLUMBIA   UNIVERSITY 


EIGHTH  EDITION 


NEW  YORK 
LONGMANS,  GREEN,  AND  CO. 

LONDON,    HOMHAV   AND  CALCUTTA 


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All  rights  reserved. 


COPYRIGHT,  U,CQ,  HY 
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All  rights  reserved. 


FIRST  EDITION,  MARCH,   1*06. 

REPRINTED  AND  REVISED,  DECEMBER,  i8g6 ;    DECEMIIEK,  iS<)S;    ()i  IDIII-K, 
OCTOIIER,  igo2  ;  SEPT  KM  HER,  1004  ;  Ji  NE,  1906  ;  NoVEMUEK,  1407  ;  J  ANT  ARY,  i 
EK;HTH  EDITION,  SEPTEMHER,  iyog 


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PREFACE   TO   FIRST    EDITION. 

THE  aim  of  this  work  has  been  to  sketch  the  various  periods 
and  styles  of  architecture  with  the  broadest  possible  strokes,  and 
to  mention,  with  such  brief  characterization  as  seemed  permissi- 
ble or  necessary,  the  most  important  works  of  each  period  or 
style.  Extreme  condensation  in  presenting  the  leading  facts  of 
architectural  history  has  been  necessary,  and  much  that  would 
rightly  claim  place  in  a  larger  work  has  been  omitted  here.  The 
danger  was  felt  to  be  rather  in  the  direction  of  too  much  detail 
than  of  too  little.  While  the  book  is  intended  primarily  to  meet 
the  special  requirements  of  the  college  student,  those  of  the  gen- 
eral reader  have  not  been  lost  sight  of.  The  majority  of  the 
technical  terms  used  are  defined  or  explained  in  the  context,  and 
the  small  remainder  in  a  glossary  at  the  end  of  the  work.  Ex- 
tended criticism  and  minute  description  were  out  of  the  question, 
and  discussion  of  controverted  points  has  been  in  consequence  as 
far  as  possible  avoided. 

The  illustrations  have  been  carefully  prepared  with  a  view  to 
elucidating  the  text,  rather  than  for  pictorial  effect.  With  the 
exception  of  some  fifteen  cuts  reproduced  from  Lubke's  Gc- 
schichte  dcr  Architektur  (by  kind  permission  of  Messrs.  Seemann, 
of  Leipzig),  the  illustrations  are  almost  all  entirely  new.  A  large 
number. are  from  original  drawings  made  by  myself,  or  under  my 
direction,  and  the  remainder  are,  with  a  few  exceptions,  half-tone 


vi  PREFACE  TO   FIRST   EDITION. 

reproductions  prepared  specially  for  this  work  from  photographs 
in  my  possession.  Acknowledgments  are  due  to  Messrs.  H.  W. 
Buemming,  H.  D.  Bultman,  and  A.  E.  Weidinger  for  valued 
assistance  in  preparing  original  drawings;  and  to  Professor  W.  R. 
Ware,  to  Professor  W.  H.  Thomson,  M.D.,  and  to  the  Editor  of 
the  Series  for  much  helpful  criticism  and  suggestion. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  lists  of  monuments  appended  to  the  history 
of  each  period  down  to  the  present  century  may  prove  useful  for 
reference,  both  to  the  student  and  the  general  reader,  as  a  supple- 
ment to  the  body  of  the  text. 

A.  D.  F.  HAMLIN. 

COLUMBIA  COLLEGE,  NEW  YORK, 
January  20,  1896. 


PREFACE   TO   THE    EIGHTH    EDITION. 

THE  architectural  achievements  of  the  past  fourteen  years,  the 
notable  advances  in  the  archaeology  of  the  art  and  the  growth 
of  its  literature,  have  made  imperative  a  careful  revision  of  the 
text  of  this  little  work.  It  has,  however,  seemed  wise  not  to  ex- 
pand unduly  the  matter  of  the  volume,  but  to  confine  the  revision 
to  the  correction  of  errors,  and  the  addition  of  such  new  matter 
as  was  necessary  to  bring  the  entire  text  up  to  date.  Some  of  the 
illustrations  have  been  re-drawn  and  a  few  new  ones  added;  the 
bibliographies  have  been  revised  and  the  lists  of  monuments  cor- 
rected and  in  some  cases  considerably  expanded.  The  form  and 
appearance  of  the  book  have  not  been  changed,  but  it  is  believed 
that  it  is  now  more  reliable  and  accurate,  and  more  nearly  abreast 
with  the  present-day  conditions  of  and  knowledge  concerning 
architecture  than  ever  before.  Having  been  printed  from  new 
plates  a  little  more  closely  than  the  earlier  editions,  it  is  but  little 
larger  than  they,  although  containing  a  considerable  amount  of 
new  matter.  In  the  work  of  revision  the  author  desires  to  ac- 
knowledge gratefully  his  especial  obligations  to  Professor  J.  T. 
Shotwell  of  Columbia  University  for  suggestions  and  corrections 
regarding  historical  matters,  and  his  appreciation  of  the  aid  rend- 
ered by  all  who  have  sent  their  criticisms  or  called  attention  to 
errors  in  the  book. 

A.  D.  F.  HAMLIN. 

THE  SCHOOL  OF  ARCHITECTI-RE, 

COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY.  NKW  YORK, 

June  24,  1 009. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

PREFACE   TO    FIRST    EDITION        .......        v 

PREFACE  TO  EIGHTH   EDITION vii 

LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xiii 

GENERAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY  xxi 

INTRODUCTION          ..........  xxiii 

CHAPTER   I. 
PRIMITIVE  AND  PREHISTORIC  ARCHITECTURE  I 

CHAPTER    II. 
EGYPTIAN  ARCHITECTURE 6 

CHAPTER   III. 
EGYPTIAN  ARCHITECTURE,  Continued 16 

CHAPTER   IV. 
CHALD.EAN  AND  ASSYRIAN  ARCHITECTURE 28 

CHAPTER    V. 
PERSIAN,  LYCIAN,  AND  JEWISH  ARCHITECTURE   .        .        .        -35 

CHAPTER    VI. 

GREEK    ARCHITECTURE  .        .  .        .      4.2 

(ix) 


X  TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER   VII.  PAGE 

GREEK  ARCHITECTURE,   Continued 61 

CHAPTER   VIII. 
ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE 75 

CHAPTER   IX. 
ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE,  Continued 88 

CHAPTER   X. 
EARLY  CHRISTIAN  ARCHITECTURE no 

CHAPTER   XI. 
BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE 120 

CHAPTER   XII. 
SASSANIAN    AND    MOHAMMEDAN    ARCHITECTURE  —  ARABIAN, 

MORESQUE,   PERSIAN,   INDIAN,  AND  TURKISH     .        .        .     135 

CHAPTER   XIII. 
EARLY  MEDIEVAL  ARCHITECTURE  IN  ITALY  AND  FRANCE   .        .     155 

CHAPTER   XIV. 
EARLY  MEDI/KVAL  ARCHITECTURE  IN  GERMANY,  GREAT  BRITAIN, 

AND    SPAIN  174 

CHAPTER   XV. 
GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE 185 

CHAPTER   XVI. 
GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  IN  FRANCE  .....     1Q9 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS.  XI 

CHAPTER    XVII.  PAGE 

GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN          ....    222 

CHAPTER   XVIII. 
GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  IN  GERMANY,  THE  NETHERLANDS,  AND 

SPAIN 242 

CHAPTER   XIX. 
GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  IN  ITALY 259 

CHAPTER   XX. 
EARLY  RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE  IN  ITALY  .        .        .        .275 

CHAPTER   XXI. 
RENAISSANCE     ARCHITECTURE     IN      ITALY — THE     ADVANCED 

RENAISSANCE  AND   DECLINE 292 

CHAPTER   XXII. 
RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE  IN  FRANCE 314 

CHAPTER   XXIII. 
RENAISSANCE    ARCHITECTURE    IN    GREAT    BRITAIN    AND    THE 

NETHERLANDS ,?34 

CHAPTER   XXIV. 
RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE  IN  GERMANY,  SPAIN.  AND  POK- 

TUGAI 346 

CHAPTER   XXV. 
THE  CLASSIC  REVIVALS  IN  EUROPE  .        .        .    363 


xii  TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER   XXVI.  PAGE 

RECENT  ARCHITECTURE   IN   EUROPE 3?6 

CHAPTER   XXVII. 

ARCHITECTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 395 

CHAPTER   XXVIII. 

ORIENTAL  ARCHITECTURE — INDIA,  CHINA,  AND  JAPAN       .        .  416 

GLOSSARY 433 

INDEX  OF  ARCHITECTS 437 

INDEX                       445 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

THE  authorship  of  the  original  drawings  is  indicated  by  the  initials 
affixed:  A.  :=  drawings  by  the  author;  B.  =  H.  W.  Buemming ;  Bn. 
=  H.  D.  Bultman ;  Cli.  =  Chateau,  L' Architecture  en  France;  G.  = 
drawings  adapted  from  Gwilt's  Encyclopaedia  of  Architecture;  L.  = 
Ltibke's  Gcschichte  dcr  Architcktur;  S.  —  Simpson's  History  of 
Architectural  Development ;  W.  =  A.  E.  Weidinger.  All  other  illus- 
trations are  from  photographs. 

PAGE 

FRONTISPIECE.    The  Parthenon  Restored  (from  model  in  Met- 
tropolitan  Museum,  New  York) 

1  Section  of  Great  Pyramid  (A.) 8 

2  Section  of  King's  Chamber  (A.) 9 

3  Plan  of  Sphinx  Temple  (A.) 9 

4  Ruins  of  Sphinx  Temple  (A.)         ....  .10 

5  Tomb  at  Abydos  (A.) n 

6  Tomb  at  Beni-Hassan  (A.) 11 

7  Section  and  Half-plan  of  same  (A.) 12 

8  Plan  of  the  Ramesseum  (A.) 14 

9  Temple  of  Edfou.    Plan  (B.) 17 

10  Temple  of  Edfou.     Section  (B.)     .        .        .        .        .  17 

11  Temple  of  Karnak.     Plan  (L.) uS 

12  Central  Portion  of  Hypostyle  Hall  at  Karnak  (from  model 

in   Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York)     ....  20 

13  Great  Temple  of  Tpsamboul    .......  21 

14  Edfou.     Front  of  Hypostyle  Hall    ....  •  -3 

15  Osirid  Pier  (Medinet  Aboti)    (A.) 24 

16  Types  of  Column    (A.) 25 

17  Egyptian  Floral  Ornament-Forms   (A.)         .        .  .  26 

18  Palace  of  Sargon  at  Khorsabad.     Phm  (L. )          .        .        .  30 
10  Gate.  Khorsabad   (A.) 32 

20  Assyrian  Ornament   (A.)          .......       34 

21  Column  from   Persi-jx.lis   (]",.) 37 

22  Lion  Gate  at  Mycen;c   (A.) 44 

(xiii) 


XIV  LIST    OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PACK 

23  Polygonal  Masonry,  Mycenae   (A.) 45 

24  Tholos  of  Atreus ;  Plan  and  Section   (A.)    ....  46 

25  Tholos  of  Atreus,  Doorway  (after  Phene  Spiers)    (A.)       .  46 

26  Greek  Doric  Order  (A.)  ........  49 

27  Doric  Order  of  the  Parthenon.     (From  cast  in  Metropolitan 

Museum,  New  York) 50 

28  Greek  Ionic  Order,  Miletus  (A.) 52 

29  Side  View  of  Ionic  Capital  (B.) 53 

30  Greek  Corinthian  Order   (A.) 54 

31  Types  of  Greek  Temple  Plans  (A.) 55 

32  Carved  Anthemion  Ornament,  Athens 58 

33  Temple  of  Zeus,  Agrigentum ;  Plan  (A.)       ....  62 

34  Ruins  of  the  Parthenon 64 

35  Plan  of  the  Erechtheum  (A.) 65 

36  West  End  of  the  Erechtheum;  Restored  (A.)      .        .        .  66 

37  Propylaea  at  Athens.    Plan  (G.) 66 

38  Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates.     (From  model  in  Met- 

ropolitan Museum,  New  York) 68 

39  Temple  of  Olympian  Zeus,  Athens.    Plan  (A.)     ...  69 

40  Plan  of  Greek  Theatre  (A.) 71 

41  Mausoleum  at  Halicarnassus  (A.) 73 

'42  Roman  Doric  Order  from  Theatre  of  Marcellus.      (Model 

in  Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York)       .         .         .         .78 

43  Roman  Ionic  Order   (A.)         .         .         .         .         .         .         -79 

44  Roman  Corinthian  Order.      (From  model   in   Metropolitan 

Museum,  New  York)  . .80 

45  Roman  Arcade  with  Engaged  Columns   (A.)       .         .         .       81 

46  Barrel  Vault  (A.) 82 

47  Groined  Vault   (A.) .82 

48  Roman  Wall  Masonry  (B.) .84 

49  Roman  Carved  Ornament.     (Lateran  Museum  )    .  .86 

50  Roman  Ceiling  Panels   (A.) .87 

51  Temple  of  Fortuna  Virilis.     Plan    ....  .89 

52  Circular  Temple,  Tivoli  (A.) 90 

53  Temple  of  Venus  and  Rome.     Plan  (A.)       ....       93 

54  Plan  of  the  Pantheon   (B.) 94 

55  Interior  of  the   Pantheon 95 

56  Exterior  of  the   Pantheon.      (Model   in    Metropolitan    Mu- 

seum, New  York)        ........       96 

57  Forum  and  Basilica  of  Trajan  (A.) 97 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS.  XV 


58  Basilica  of  Constantinc.    Plan  (G.) 98 

59  Ruins  of  Basilica  of  Constantino 99 

60  Central  Block,  Thermae  of  Caracalla.     Plan  (G.)         .        .  100 

61  Roman  Theatre,  Herculanum 101 

62  Colosseum  at  Rome.    Half  Plan  (A.) 102 

63  Arch  of  Constantine.     (Model   in   Metropolitan   Museum, 

New  York) 103 

64  Palace  of  Diocletian,  Spalato.    Plan  (G.)       ....  105 

65  Plan  of  House  of  Pansa,  Pompeii  (A.)          .        .        .        .  106 

66  Plan  of  Santa  Costanza,  Rome  (A.) in 

67  Plan  of  the  Basilica  of  St.  Paul-beyond-the-Walls,  Rome 

(A.) 113 

68  St.  Paul-beyond-the-Walls.     Interior 114 

69  Church  at  Kalb  Louzeh  (A.) 116 

70  Cathedral  at  Bozrah.    Plan  (A.) 117 

71  Diagram  of  Pendentives  (A.) 123 

72  Spandril.  Hagia  Sophia 125 

73  Capital  with  Impost  Block,  S.  Vitale 126 

74  Plan  of  St.  Sergius,  Constantinople  (A.)      ....  127 

75  Plan  of  San  Vitale,  Ravenna  (S.) 127 

76  Plan  of  Hagia  Sophia,  Constantinople  (A.)  ....  128 

77  Section  of  Hagia  Sophia  (A.) 128 

78  Interior  of  Hagia  Sophia  (full  page) 129 

79  Plan  of  St.  Mark's,  Venice  (A.) 132 

80  Interior  of  St.  Mark's 133 

81  Mosque  of  Sultan  Hassan,  Cairo.     Sanctuary       .        .        .  137 

82  Mosque  of  Kaid  Bey,  Cairo 139 

83  Moorish  Detail,  Alhambra 141 

84  Interior  of  Great  Mosque,  Cordova        ...                 .  142 

85  Plan  of  the  Alhambra  (A.) .144 

86  Tomb  of  Mahmud,  Bijapur.    Section  (A.)     .        .                 .  147 

87  The  Taj  Mahal,  Agra 149 

88  Mosque  of  Mehmet  II.,  Constantinople.     Plan  (L.)       .         .  151 

89  Exterior  of  Ahmediyeh  Mosque,  Constantinople   .         .         .  152 

90  Interior  of  Suleimaniyeh  Mosque,  Constantinople        .  153 

91  Interior  of  San  Ambrogio,  Milan 157 

92  Plan  of  San  Michele,  Pavia  (A.) 158 

93  West  Front  and  Campanile,  Cathedral  of  Piacenza      .         .  159 

94  Baptistery,  Cathedral,  and  Leaning  Tower,  Pisa    .         .         .  160 

95  Interior  of  Pisa  Cathedral       .......  161 


xvi  LIST    OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PACE 

96  Plan  of  St.  Front,  Perigueux  (G.) 166 

97  Interior  of  St.  Front  (L.) 167 

98  Plan  of  Notre  Dame  clu  Port,  Clermont  (Ch.)      .         .         .167 

99  Section  of  same   (Ch.) 168 

100  Plan  of  St.  Sernin,  Toulouse  (A.)        .         .         .         .         .  168 

101  A  Six-part  Ribbed  Vault  (A.) 169 

1 02  Plan  of  Minster  at  Worms  (G.) 175 

103  One  Bay,  Cathedral  of  Spires  (L.) 176 

104  East  End,  Church  of  the  Apostles,  Cologne  ....  177 

105  Plan  of  Durham  Cathedral  (Bn.)  .         .         .         .         .         .  179 

106  One  Bay,  Transept  of  Winchester  Cathedral  (G.)       .         .  180 

107  Front  of  Iffley  Church  (A.) 181 

108  Constructive  System  of  Gothic  Church  (A.)         .         .         .  186 

109  Plan  of  Sainte  Chapelle,  Paris  (Bn.) 187 

1 10  Early  Gothic  Flying  Buttress  (Bn.) 188 

111  Ribbed  Vault,  English  Type  (Bn.  after  Babcock)         .         .  189 

112  Penetrations  and  Intersections  of  Vaults  (Bn.)  .         .         .  100 

113  Plate  Tracery,  Charlton-on-Oxmore      .....  191 

114  Bar  Tracery,  St.  Michael's,  Warfield  (W.)  ....  192 

115  Rose  Window  from  St.  Oucn,  Rouen  (G.)    ....  193 

116  Flamboyant  Detail,  Strasburg        ......  194 

117  Early  Gothic  Carving  (A.) 195 

118  Carving,  Decorated  Period,  from  Southwell  Minster  .         .  196 

119  Plan  of  Notre  Dame.  Paris  (L.) 201 

120  Interior  of  Notre  Dame 202 

I2F    Interior  of  Le  Mans  Cathedral       ......  203 

122  Vaulting  with  Zigzag  Ridge  Joints  (A.)        ....  204 

123  i")nc  Bay,  Abbey  of  St.   Denis   (G.) 206 

124  The  Sainte  Chapelle,  Paris.     Exterior 207 

125  Amiens  Cathedral.     Plan   (G.) 208 

126  Alby  Cathedral.     Plan  (A.  after  Liibke)        .         .         .         .209 

127  West  Front  of  Notre  Dame,  Paris 210 

128  West   Front  of  St.   Maclou,   Rouen 211 

129  French  Gothic  Capitals  (A.) 213 

130  Openwork   Gable,    Rouen   Cathedral      .....  214 

131  North  Porch,  Chartres  Cathedral 215 

132  House  of  Jacques  ("(eiir,   Bourges   (L.)          .          .          .          .  218 

133  Han  of  Salisbury  Cathedral  (Bn.) 223 

134  Ribbed  Vaulting,  Choir  of  Exeter  Cathedral         .         .         .  225 

135  Lierne  Vaulting,  Tewkesbury  Abbey     .  226 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS.  xvii 

PACE 

136  Vault  of  Chapter  House,  Wells 227 

'37  Cloisters  of  Salisbury  Cathedral         .            ....  229 

138  Perpendicular  Tracery,  St.  George's,  Windsor     .         .        .  230 

139  West  Front,  Lichfield  Cathedral 232 

140  One  Bay  of  Choir,  Lichtield  Cathedral  (A.)         .        .        .  233 

141  Fan  Vaulting,  Henry  VII. 's  Chapel 235 

142  Eastern  Part,  Westminster  Abbey.    Plan  (L.)      .        .        .  236 

143  Roof  of  Nave,  St.  Mary's,  Westonzoyland  (W.)         .        .  238 

144  One  Bay,  Cathedral  of  St.  George,  Limhurg  (L.)         .        .  244 

145  Section  of  St.  Elizabeth.  Marburg  (Bn.)       ....  245 

146  Cologne  Cathedral.    Plan  (G.) 247 

147  Church  of  Our  Lady,  Treves  (L.) 248 

148  Plan  of  Ulm  Cathedral  (L.) 249 

149  Town  Hall,  Louvain 252 

150  Facade  of  Burgos  Cathedral 253 

151  Detail  from  S.  Gregorio,  Valladolid 255 

152  Duomo  at  Florence.    Plan  (G.) 261 

153  Duomo  at  Florence.     Nave    .......  262 

154  One  Bay,  Cathedral  of  S.  Martino,  Lucca  (L.)    .        .        .  263 

155  Interior  of  Sienna  Cathedral 264 

156  Faqade  of  Sienna  Cathedral  .......  266 

157  Exterior  of  the  Certosa,  Pavia 267 

158  Plan  of  the  Certosa,  Pavia 268 

159  Upper  Part  of  Campanile,  Florence       .....  269 

160  Upper  Part  of  Palazzo  Vecchio,  Florence    ....  270 

161  Loggia  dei  Lanzi,  Florence      .......  271 

162  West  Front  of  Doge's  Palace,  Venice 272 

163  Capital,  Palazzo  Zorzi,  Venice 280 

16.}  Section  of  Dome,  Duomo  of  Florence  (Bn.)         .         .         .  281 

lf>5  Exterior  of  Dome,  Duomo  of  Florence          ....  282 

if)6  Interior  of  S.  Spirito,  Florence      ......  283 

167  Court  of  Riccardi  Palace,  Florence       .....  284 

i6S  Facade  of  Strozzi  Palace,  Florence 285 

}(,<)  Tomb  of  Pietro  di  Noceto.  Lucca           .....  287 

17.0  Vendramini   Palace,  Venice    .......  280 

171  Facade  of  Giraud  Palace.  Rome  (L.) 295 

172  Plan  of  Farnese  Palace,  Rome  (  L. ) _'<X> 

173  Court  of  Fanu-se  Palace,  Rome     ......  -'97 

174  Bramantc's  Plan  for  St.  I 'tier's,  Rome  (L)         .         .         .  J<)<) 

175  Plan  of  St.  Peter's.  Rome,  as  now  standing  (  Bn.  after  G.)  300 


XV111  LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


176  Interior  of  St.  Peter's  (full  page) 301 

177  Library  of  St.  Mark,  Venice 306 

178  Interior  of  San  Severo,  Naples      ......  307 

179  Church  of  Santa  Maria  della  Salute,  Naples        .        .        .  308 

180  Court  Facade,  East  Wing  of  Blois 317 

181  Staircase  Tower,  Blois 319 

182  Plan  of  Chateau  of  Chambord  (A.) 320 

183  Upper  Part  of  Chateau  of  Chambord   .....  320 

184  Detail  of  Court  of  Louvre,  southwest  portion      .         .  322 

185  The  Luxemburg  Palace,  Paris 324 

186  Colonnade  of  the  Louvre 327 

187  Dome  of  the  Invalides,  Paris 328 

188  Fagade  of  St.  Sulpice,  Paris 329 

189  Plan  of  Pantheon,  Paris  (G.) 330 

190  Exterior  of  Pantheon,  Paris 331 

191  Burghley  House 336 

192  Whitehall  Palace,  the  Banqueting  Hall         ....  337 

193  Plan  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  London  (G.)  ....  338 

194  Exterior  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral 339 

195  Plan  of  Blenheim  (G.) 340 

196  St.  Martin's-in-the-Fields,  London 341 

197  Renaissance  Houses,  Brussels 343 

198  Schloss  Hamelschenburg 349 

199  The  Friedrichsbau,  Heidelberg  Castle          .        .         .         .  351 

200  Pavilion  of  Zwinger  Palace,  Dresden 353 

201  Marienkirche,  Dresden   . 354 

202  Portal  of  University,  Salamanca 357 

203  Court  (Patio)  of  Casa  de  Zaporta 358 

204  Palace  of  Charles  V.,  Granada       ......  359 

205  Faqade  of  British  Museum,  London 365 

206  St.  George's  Hall,  Liverpool 366 

207  The  Old  Museum,  Berlin 368 

208  The  Propylaea,  Munich 369 

209  Arch  of  Triumph  of  1'Etoile,  Paris 371 

210  The  Madeleine,  Paris 372 

211  Door  of  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts,  Paris 373 

212  St.  Isaac's  Cathedral,  St.  Petersburg 374 

213  Plan  of  Louvre  and  Tuileries  (A.) 379 

214  Pavilion  Richelieu,  Louvre 380 

215  Grand  Staircase,  Paris  Opera  House 381 


LIST  -OF   ILLUSTRATIONS.  xix 


216  Fountain  of  Longchamps,  Marseilles    .....  382 

217  Galliera  Museum,  Paris 383 

218  Royal  Theatre,  Dresden 384 

219  Maria-Theresienhof,  Vienna 385 

220  Houses  of  Parliament,  London       ......  387 

221  Assize  Courts,  Manchester 388 

222  Natural  History  Museum,  South  Kensington       .        .        .  389 

223  Christ  Church,  Philadelphia 398 

224  Craigie  House,  Cambridge  (Mass.) 399 

225  National  Capitol,  Washington 401 

226  Old  Custom  House,  New  York  (National  City  Bank)        .  402 

227  Trinity  Church,  Boston  ........  406 

228  Public  Library,  Woburn  (Mass.) 407 

229  Times  Building,  New  York 409 

230  Country  House  at  Nyack,  N.  Y 410 

231  Country  House  in  Colonial  Style 412 

232  Porch  of  Temple  of  Vimalah  Sah,  Mount  Abu    .        .        .421 

233  Tower  of  Victor}',  Chittore 422 

234  Double  Temple  at  Hullabid  :  Detail 425 

235  Shrine  of  Soubramanya,  Tan j  ore 427 


GENERAL    BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

(This  includes  the  leading  architectural  works  treating  of  more 
than  one  period  or  style.  The  reader  should  consult  also  the  special 
references  at  the  head  of  each  chapter.  Valuable  material  is  also 
contained  in  the  leading  architectural  periodicals  and  in  mono- 
graphs too  numerous  to  mention.) 

DICTIONARIES  AND  ENCYCLOPEDIAS. 

Agincourt,  History  0}  Art  by  its  Monuments;  London. 

Architectural  Publication  Society,  Dictionary  oj  Architecture; 
London. 

Bosc,  Dictionnaire  raisonne  d' architecture;  Paris. 

Gwilt,  Encyclopedia  0}  Architecture;  London  and  New  York. 

Longfellow  and  Frothingham,  Cyclopedia.  0}  Architecture  in 
Italy  and  the  Lercani;  New  York. 

Planat,  Encyclopedic  d?  architecture;  Paris. 

Sturgis,  Dictionary  oj  Architecture  and  Building;  New  York. 

GENERAL  HANDBOOKS  AND  HISTORIES. 

Blomfield,  The  Mistress  Art;  London. 

Biihlmann,  Die  Archilcktur  dcs  klassischcn  Altcrthums  und  dcr 
Renaissance;  Stuttgart.  (Also  in  English,  published  in  New 
York.) 

Choisy,  Histoire  de  I1  architecture;  Paris. 

Durand,  Recucil  el  parallcle  d'edifices  de  tous  genres;  Paris. 

Durm  and  others,  Handlnich  dcr  Anhitektur;  Stuttgart.  (This 
is  an  encyclopedic  compendium  of  architectural  knowledge  in 
many  volumes;  the  series  not  yet  complete.  It  is  referred  to  as 
ihclfdbuch.d.  Arch.) 

Fergusson,  History  oj  Architecture  in  All  Countries;  London. 


xxii  GENERAL   BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Fletcher  and  Fletcher,  A  History  0}  Architecture;  London. 

Gailhabaud,  U  Architecture  du  Vine,  au  XV II I  me.  siecle;  Paris. 
— Monuments  anclens  et  modernes;  Paris. 

Gosset,  Les  Cou  poles  d'orient  et  d1  Occident ;  Paris. 

Isabelle,  Les  Edifices  circulaires  et  les  domes;  Paris. 

Kugler,  Geschichte  der  Baukunst;  Stuttgart. 

Liibke, Geschichte  der  Architektur;  Leipzig. — History  0}  Arf,  tr. 
and  rev.  by  R.  Sturgis;  New  York. 

Michel,  Histoire  de  I' Art. 

Perry,  Chronology  0}  Medieval  and  Renaissance  Architecture; 
London. 

Reynaud,  Traite  d' 'architecture;  Paris. 

Roger-Peyre,  Repertoire  chronologique  de  Vlnstoire  des  Beaux- 
Arts. 

Rosengarten,  Handbook  of  Architectural  Styles;  London  and 
New  York. 

Simpson,  A  History  of  Architectural  Development,  vols.  i.  and 
ii.;  London  and  New  York. 

Spiers,  Architecture  East  and  West;  London. 

Statham,  Architecture  /or  General  Readers;  London. 

Sturgis,  European  Architecture;  New  York, — .1  History  of 
Architecture,  vol.  i.;  New  York. 

Transactions  of  the  Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects; 
London. 

Viollet-le-Uuc,  Discourses  on  Architecture;  Boston. 

THEORY,  THE  ORDERS,  ETC. 

Chambers,  A  Treatise  on  Civil  Architecture;  London. 
Ksquie,  Traite  elementaire  d? architecture;  Paris. 
Guadet,  Thcorie  de  I'archilccfnrc;  Paris. 
Jackson,  Reason  in  Architecture;  London. 
Ruskin,  The.  Seven  Lamps  of  Architecture;  London. 
Sturgis,  Hoiv  to  Judge  Architecture;  New  York. 
Ware,  The  American  Vignola;  Scranton. 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


INTRODUCTION. 

A  HISTORY  of  architecture  is  a  record  of  man's  efforts  to  build 
beautifully.  The  erection  of  structures  devoid  of  beauty  is  mere 
building,  a  trade  and  not  an  art.  Edifices  in  which  strength  and 
stability  alone  are  sought,  and  in  designing  which  only  utilitarian 
considerations  have  been  followed,  are  properly  works  of  engi- 
neering. Only  when  the  idea  of  beauty  is  added  to  that  of  use 
does  a  structure  take  its  place  among  works  of  architecture.  We 
may,  then,  define  architecture  as  the  art  which  seeks  to  harmon- 
ize in  a  building  the  requirements  of  utility  and  of  beauty.  It  is 
the  most  useful  of  the  fine  arts  and  the  noblest  of  the  useful  arts. 
It  touches  the  life  of  man  at  every  point.  It  is  concerned  not 
only  in  sheltering  his  person  and  ministering  to  his  comfort,  but 
also  in  providing  him  with  places  for  worship,  amusement,  and 
business;  with  tombs,  memorials,  embellishments  for  his  cities, 
and  other  structures  for  the  varied  needs  of  a  complex  civilization. 
It  engages  the  services  of  a  larger  portion  of  the  community  and 
involves  greater  outlays  of  money  than  any  other  occupation 
except  agriculture.  Everyone  at  some  point  comes  in  contact 
with  the  work  of  the  architect,  and  from  this  universal  contact 
architecture  derives  its  significance  as  an  index  of  the  civilization 
of  an  age,  a  race,  or  a  people. 

It  is  the  function  of  the  historian  of  architecture  to  trace  the 
origin,  growth,  and  dec  line  of  the  architectural  styles  which  have 
prevailed  in  different  lands  and  ages,  and  to  show  how  they  have 


xxiv  INTRODUCTION. 

reflected  the  great  movements  of  civilization.  The  migrations, 
the  conquests,  the  commercial,  social,  and  religious  changes 
among  different  peoples  have  all  manifested  themselves  in  the 
changes  of  their  architecture,  and  it  is  the  historian's  function  to 
show  this.  It  is  also  his  function  to  explain  the  principles  of  the 
styles,  their  characteristic  forms  and  decoration,  and  to  describe 
the  great  masterpieces  of  each  style  and  period. 

STYLE  is  a  quality;  the  "historic  styles"  are  phases  of  devel- 
opment. Style  is  character  expressive  of  definite  conceptions,  as 
of  grandeur,  gaiety,  or  solemnity.  An  historic  style  is  the  particu 
lar  phase,  the  characteristic  manner  of  design,  which  prevails  at 
a  given  time  and  place.  It  is  not  the  result  of  mere  accident  or 
caprice,  but  of  intellectual,  moral,  social,  religious,  and  even  polit- 
ical conditions.  Gothic  architecture  could  never  have  been  in- 
vented by  the  Greeks,  nor  could  the  Egyptian  styles  have  grown 
up  in  Italy.  Each  style  is  based  upon  some  fundamental  princi- 
ple springing  from  its  surrounding  civilization,  which  undergoes 
successive  developments  until  either  it  reaches  perfection  or  its 
possibilities  are  exhausted,  after  which  a  period  of  decline  usually 
sets  in.  This  is  followed  either  by  a  reaction  and  the  introduc- 
tion of  some  radically  new  principle  leading  to  the  evolution  of  a 
new  style,  or  by  the  final  decay  and  extinction  of  the  civilization 
and  its  replacement  by  some  younger  and  more  virile  element. 
Thus  the  history  of  architecture  appears  as  a  connected  chain  of 
causes  and  effects  succeeding  each  other  without  break,  each 
style  growing  out  of  that  which  preceded  it,  or  springing  out  of 
the  fecundating  contact  of  a  higher  with  a  lower  civilization.  To 
study  architectural  styles  is  therefore  to  study  a  branch  of  the 
history  of  civilization. 

Technically,  architectural  styles  are  identified  by  the  means 
they  employ  to  cover  enclosed  spaces,  by  the  characteristic  forms 
of  the  supports  and  other  members  (piers,  columns,  arches,  mould- 
ings, traceries,  etc.),  and  by  their  decoration.  The  plan  should 
receive  special  attention,  since  it  shows  the  arrangement  of  the 


INTRODUCTION.  XXV 

points  of  support,  and  hence  the  nature  of  the  structural  design. 
A  comparison,  for  example,  of  the  plans  of  the  Hypostyle  Hall  at 
Karnak  (Fig.  n,  //)  and  of  the  Basilica  of  Constantine  (Fig.  58) 
shows  at  once  a  radical  difference  in  constructive  principle  be- 
tween the  two  edifices,  and  hence  a  difference  of  style. 

STRUCTURAL  PRINCIPLES.  All  architecture  is  based  on 
one  or  more  of  four  fundamental  structural  principles;  that  of 
the  lintel,  of  the  arch  or  vault,  of  the  truss,  and  of  cohesive  con- 
struction. The  principle  of  the  lintel  is  that  of  resistance  to 
transverse  strains,  and  appears  in  all  construction  in  which  a 
single  cross-piece  or  beam  rests  on  two  or  more  vertical  supports. 
The  arch  or  vault  makes  use  of  several  pieces  to  span  an  opening 
between  two  supports.  These  pieces  are  in  compression  and 
exert  lateral  pressures  or  thrusts  which  are  transmitted  to  the 
supports  or  abutments.  The  thrust  must  be  resisted  either  by 
the  massiveness  of  the  abutments  or  by  the  opposition  to  it  of 
counter-thrusts  from  other  arches  or  vaults.  Roman  builders 
used  the  first,  Gothic  builders  the  second  of  these  means  of  re- 
sistance. The  truss  is  a  framework  so  composed  of  several 
pieces  of  wood  or  metal  that  each  shall  best  resist  the  particular 
strain,  whether  of  tension  or  compression,  to  which  it  is  subjected, 
the  whole  forming  a  compound  beam.  It  is  especially  applicable 
to  very  wide  spans,  and  is  the  most  characteristic  feature  of  mod- 
ern construction. 

The  fourth  principle,  that  of  the  cohesion  of  materials  shaped 
while  plastic,  and  hardening  or  "setting"  into  a  homogeneous 
structural  unit,  although  known  to  the  Romans  and  employed  by 
them  in  a  limited  way,  has  within  recent  years  undergone  an  ex- 
traordinarily rapid  development.  It  employs  concrete,  made  of 
cement  and  small  stones  or  other  like  material,  moulded  while 
plastic  into  the  necessary  structural  forms  and  supplied  with 
bars,  rcxls  or  wires  of  metal  buried  in  the  concrete  to  take  up  any 
and  all  tensile  strains  in  the  beams  or  slabs  subject  to  transverse 
pressure,  and  which  the  concrete  alone  is  ill-fitted  to  resist.  The 


XXVI  INTRODUCTION. 

applications  of  this  system  are  known  by  various  names  grouped 
under  the  generic  term  "reenforced  concrete."  While  its  most 
rapid  development  has  been  in  works  of  pure  engineering,  its 
applications  to  architecture  are  being  daily  multiplied  and  it  is 
sure  to  exert  a  marked  influence  as  the  design  of  the  coming 
years.  How  the  adoption  of  one  or  another  of  these  principles 
affected  the  forms  and  even  the  decoration  of  the  various  styles 
will  be  shown  in  the  succeeding  chapters. 

HISTORIC  DEVELOPMENT.  Geographically  and  chron- 
ologically, architecture  appears  to  have  originated  in  the  Nile 
valley.  A  second  centre  of  development  is  found  in  the  valley  of 
the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  not  uninfluenced  by  the  older  Egyptian 
art.  A  third  centre  of  artistic  culture,  later  in  date  than  the 
two  just  mentioned,  has  been  in  recent  years  discovered  to  have 
existed  in  Crete.  Through  various  channels  the  Greeks  inher- 
ited from  all  three  civilizations,  the  several  influences  being  dis- 
cernible even  through  the  strongly  original  aspect  of  Greek 
architecture.  The  Romans  in  turn,  adopting  the  external  details 
of  Greek  architecture,  transformed  its  substance  by  substituting 
the  Etruscan  arch  for  the  Greek  construction  of  columns  and 
lintels.  They  developed  a  complete  and  original  system  of  con- 
struction and  decoration  and  spread  it  over  the  civilized  world, 
which  has  never  wholly  outgrown  or  abandoned  it. 

With  the  fall  of  Rome  and  the  rise  of  Constantinople  these 
forms  underwent  in  the  East  another  transformation,  called  the 
Byzantine,  in  the  development  of  Christian  domical  church  archi- 
tecture. In  the  North  and  West,  meanwhile,  under  the  growing 
institutions  of  the  papacy  and  of  the  monastic  orders  and  the 
emergence  of  a  feudal  civilization  out  of  the  chaos  of  the  Dark 
Ages,  the  constant  preoccupation  of  architecture  was  to  evolve 
from  the  basilica  type  of  church  a  vaulted  structure,  and  to  adorn 
it  throughout  with  an  appropriate  dress  of  constructive  and 
symbolic  ornament.  Gothic  architecture  was  the  outcome 
of  this  preoccupation  and  it  prevailed  throughout  northern  and 


INTRODUCTION.  XXVll 

western  Europe  until  nearly  or  quite  the  close  of  (he  fifteenth 
century. 

During  this  fifteenth  century  the  Renaissance  style  matured  in 
Italy,  where  it  speedily  triumphed  over  Gothic  fashions  and  pro- 
duced a  marvellous  series  of  civic  monuments,  palaces,  and 
churches,  adorned  with  forms  borrowed  or  imitated  from  classic 
Roman  art.  This  influence  spread  through  luirope  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  and  ran  a  course  of  two  centuries,  after  which  a 
period  of  servile  classicism  was  followed  by  a  rapid  decline  in 
taste.  To  this  succeeded  the  eclecticism  and  confusion  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  to  which  the  rapid  growth  of  new  require- 
ments and  development  of  new  resources  have  largely  con- 
tributed. 

In  Eastern  lands  three  great  schools  of  architecture  have 
grown  up  contemporaneously  with  the  above  phases  of  Western 
art;  one  under  the  influence  of  Mohammedan  civilization,  another 
in  the  Brahman  and  Buddhist  architecture  of  India  and  the  third 
in  China  and  Japan.  The  first  of  these  is  the  richest  and  most 
important.  Primarily  inspired  in  large  measure  from  Byzantine 
art,  always  stronger  on  the  decorative  than  on  the  constructive 
side,  it  has  given  to  the  world  the  mosques  and  palaces  of  North- 
ern Africa,  Moorish  Spain,  Persia,  Turkey,  and  India.  The 
other  two  schools  seem  to  be  wholly  unrelated  to  the  first,  and 
have  no  affinity  with  the  architecture  of  Western  lands. 

Of  Mexican,  Central  American,  and  South  American  architec- 
ture so  little  is  known,  and  that  little  is  so  remote  in  history  and 
spirit  from  the  styles  above  enumerated,  that  it  belongs  rather  to 
archaeology  than  to  architectural  history,  and  will  not  be  con- 
sidered in  this  work. 


CHAPTER   I. 
PRIMITIVE   AND   PREHISTORIC   ARCHITECTURE. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED:  Desor,  Les  constructions  lacustres  du 
lac  de  Neu/chalel.  Fergusson,  Rude  Stone  Monuments.  R.  C. 
Hoare,  Ancient  Wiltshire.  Lyell,  The  Antiquity  0}  Man.  Lub- 
bock,  Prehistoric  Times.  Nadaillac,  Prehistoric  America. 
Rougemont,  L'age  du  Bronze.  Tylor,  Primitive  Culture.  Waring, 
Stone  Monuments,  Tumuli  and  Ornament  oj  Remote  Ages. 

EARLY  BEGINNINGS.  It  is  impossible  to  trace  the  early 
stages  of  the  process  by  which  true  architecture  grew  out  of  the 
first  rude  attempts  of  man  at  building.  The  oldest  existing  monu- 
ments of  architecture — those  of  Chaldrcaand  Egypt — belong  to  an 
advanced  civilization.  The  rude  and  elementary  structures 
built  by  savage  and  barbarous  peoples,  like  the  Hottentots  or  the 
tribes  of  Central  Africa,  are  not  in  themselves  works  of  architec- 
ture, nor  is  any  instance  known  of  the  evolution  of  a  civilized  art 
from  such  beginnings.  So  far  as  the  monuments  testify,  no  sav- 
age people  ever  raised  itself  to  civilization,  and  no  primitive 
method  of  building  was  ever  developed  into  genuine  architecture, 
except  by  contract  with  some  existing  civilization  of  which  it  ap- 
propriated the  spirit,  the  processes,  and  the  forms.  How  the 
earliest  architecture  came  into  existence  is  as  yet  an  unsolved 
problem. 

PRIMITIVE  ARCHITECTURE  is  therefore  a  subject  for  the 
archaeologist  rather  than  the  historian  of  art,  and  needs  here  only 
the  briefest  mention.  If  we  may  judge  of  the  condition  of  the 
primitive  races  of  antiquity  by  that  of  the  savage  and  barbarous 
peoples  of  our  own  time,  they  required  only  the  simplest  kinds  of 


2  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

buildings,  though  the  purposes  which  they  served  were  the  same 
as  those  of  later  times  in  civilized  communities.  A  hut  or  house 
for  shelter,  a  shrine  of  some  sort  for  worship,  a  stockade  for  de- 
fence, a  cairn  or  mound  over  the  grave  of  the  chief  or  hero,  were 
provided  out  of  the  simplest  materials,  and  these  often  of  a  perish- 
able nature.  Poles  supplied  the  framework;  wattles,  skins  or 
mud  the  walls;  thatching  or  stamped  earth  the  roof.  Only  the 
simplest  tools  were  needed  for  such  elementary  construction. 
There  was  ingenuity  and  patient  labor  in  work  of  this  kind;  but 
there  was  no  planning,  no  fitting  together  into  a  complex  organ- 
ism of  varied  materials  shaped  with  art  and  handled  with  science. 
Above  all,  there  was  no  progression  toward  higher  ideals  of  fitness 
and  beauty.  Rudimentary  art  displayed  itself  mainly  in  objects 
of  worship,  or  in  the  decorations  of  canoes  and  weapons,  exe- 
cuted as  talismans  to  ward  off  misfortune  or  to  charm  the  unseen 
powers;  but  even  this  art  was  sterile  and  never  grew  of  itself  into 
civilized  and  progressive  art. 

Yet  there  must  have  been  at  some  point  in  the  remote  past  an 
exception  to  this  rule.  Somewhere  and  somehow  the  first  civ- 
ilized people,  perhaps  of  Egypt,  either  in  Egypt  or  in  some  earlier 
ancestral  home,  must  have  developed  from  crude  beginnings  the 
architectural  knowledge  and  resource  which  meet  us  in  the  oldest 
monuments,  though  every  vestige  of  that  early  age  has  apparently 
perished.  But  although  nothing  has  come  down  to  us  of  the 
actual  work  of  the  builders  who  wrought  in  the  primitive  ages  of 
mankind,  there  exist  throughout  Europe  and  Asia  almost  count- 
less monuments  of  a  primitive  character  belonging  to  relatively 
recent  times,  but  executed  before  the  advent  of  historic  civiliza- 
tion to  the  regions  where  they  are  found.  A  general  resemblance 
among  them  suggests  a  common  heritage  of  traditions  from  the 
hoariest  antiquity,  and  throws  light  on  the  probable  character  of 
the  transition  from  barbaric  to  civilized  architecture. 

PREHISTORIC  MONUMENTS.  These  monuments  vary  widely 
in  age  as  well  as  in  excellence;  some  of  them  be-long  to 


PRIMITIVE  AND   PREHISTORIC  ARCHITECTURE.        3 

Roman  or  even  Christian  times;  others  to  a  much  remoter  period. 
They  are  divided  into  two  principal  classes,  the  megalitliic  struc- 
tures and  lake  dwellings.  The  latter  class  may  be  dismissed  with 
the  briefest  mention.  It  comprises  a  considerable  number  of 
very  primitive  houses  or  huts  built  on  wooden  piles  in  the  lakes  of 
Switzerland  and  several  other  countries  in  both  hemispheres,  and 
forming  in  some  cases  villages  of  no  mean  size.  Such  villages, 
built  over  the  water  for  protection  from  attack,  are  mentioned  by 
the  writers  of  antiquity  and  portrayed  on  Assyrian  reliefs.  The 
objects  found  in  them  reveal  an  incipient  but  almost  stationary 
civilization,  extending  back  from  three  thousand  to  five  thousand 
years  or  more,  and  lasting  through  the  ages  of  stone  and  bronze 
down  into  historic  times. 

The  megalithic  remains  of  Europe  and  Asia  are  far  more  im- 
portant. They  are  very  widely  distributed,  and  consist  in  most 
cases  of  great  blocks  of  stone  arranged  in  rows,  circles,  or  avenues, 
sometimes  with  huge  lintels  resting  upon  them.  Upright  stones 
without  lintels  are  called  menhirs;  standing  in  pairs  with  lintels 
they  are  known  as  dolmens;  the  circles  are  called  cromlechs. 
Some  of  the  stones  are  of  gigantic  size,  some  roughly  hewn  into 
shape;  others  left  as  when  quarried.  Their  age  and  purpose 
have  been  much  discussed  without  reaching  positive  results.  It 
is  probable  that,  like  the  lake  dwellings,  they  cover  a  long  range  of 
time,  reaching  from  the  dawn  of  recorded  history  some  thousands 
of  years  back  into  the  unknown  past,  and  that  they  were  erected 
by  races  which  have  disappeared  before  the  migrations  to  which 
Europe  owes  her  present  populations.  That  most  of  them  were 
in  some  way  connected  with  the  worship  of  these  prehistoric  peo- 
ples is  generally  admitted;  but  whether  as  temples,  tombs,  or 
memorials  of  historical  or  mythical  events  cannot,  in  all  cases,  be 
positively  asserted.  They  were  not  dwellings  or  palaces,  and 
very  few  were  even  enclosed  buildings.  They  are  imposing  by  the 
size  and  number  of  their  immense  stones,  but  show  no  sign  of 
advanced  art,  or  of  conscious  striving  after  beauty  of  design. 


4  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

The  small  number  of  "carved  stones,"  bearing  singular  orna- 
mental patterns,  symbolic  or  mystical  rather  than  decorative  in 
intention,  really  tends  to  prove  this  statement  rather  than  to  con- 
trovert it.  It  is  not  impossible  that  the  dolmens  were  generally 
intended  to  be  covered  by  mounds  of  earth.  This  would  group 
them  with  the  tumuli  referred  to  below,  and  point  to  a  sepulchral 
purpose  in  their  erection.  Some  antiquaries,  Fergusson  among 
them,  contend  that  many  of  the  European  circles  and  avenues 
were  intended  as  battle-monuments  or  trophies. 

There  are  also  walls  of  great  antiquity  in  various  parts  of 
Europe  intended  for  fortification;  the  most  important  of  these  in 
Greece  and  Italy  will  be  referred  to  in  later  chapters.  They  be- 
long to  a  more  advanced  art,  some  of  them  even  deserving  to  be 
classed  among  works  of  archaic  architecture. 

The  tumuli,  or  burial  mounds,  which  form  so  large  a  part  of 
the  prehistoric  remains  of  both  continents,  are  interesting  to  the 
architect  only  as  revealing  the  prototypes  of  the  pyramids  of 
Egypt  and  the  subterranean  tombs  of  Mycenae  and  other  early 
Greek  centres.  The  piling  of  huge  cairns  or  commemorative 
heaps  of  stone  is  known  from  the  Scriptures  and  other  ancient 
writings  to  have  been  a  custom  of  the  greatest  antiquity.  The 
pyramids  and  the  Mausoleum  at  Halicarnassus  are  the  most 
imposing  and  elaborate  outgrowths  of  this  practice,  of  which  the 
prehistoric  tumuli  are  the  simpler  manifestations. 

These  crude  and  elementary  products  of  undeveloped  civiliza- 
tions have  no  place,  however,  in  any  list  of  genuine  architectural 
works.  They  belong  rather  to  the  domain  of  archaeology  and 
ethnology,  and  have  received  this  brief  mention  only  as  revealing 
the  beginnings  of  the  builder's  art,  and  the  wide  gap  that  sepa- 
rates them  from  that  genuine  architecture  which  forms  the  sub- 
ject of  the  following  chapters. 

MONUMENTS.  Tin-  most  celebrated  in  England  arc  at  Avehury, 
an  avenue,  larj^e  and  small  circle's,  harrows,  and  the  great  tumuli 
of  Bartlow  and  Silbury  "Hills";  at  Stonclu-nge,  on  Salisbury 


PRIMITIVE   AND    PREHISTORIC   ARCHITECTURE.        5 

Plain,  great  megalithic  circles  and  many  barrows;  "  Sarsen  stones" 
at  Ashdown;  tumuli,  dolmens,  chambers,  and  circles  in  Derby- 
shire. In  Ireland,  many  cairns  and  circles.  In  Scotland,  circles 
and  barrows  in  the  Orkney  Islands.  In  France,  Carnac  and  Lok- 
mariaker  in  Brittany  are  especially  rich  in  dolmens,  circles,  and 
avenues.  In  Scandinavia,  Germany,  and  Italy,  in  India  and  in 
Africa,  are  many  similar  remains. 


CHAPTER    II. 
EGYPTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED:  Breasted,  A  History  of  Egypt  from  the 
Earliest  Times.  Brugsch  Bey,  Egypt  under  the  Pharaohs. 
Champollion,  Monuments  de  I'Egyple  el  de  la  Nubie.  Choisy, 
L'art  de  bdtir  chez  les  Egyptiens.  Jomard,  Description  dc 
I'Egyple,  Antiquites.  Lepsius,  Denkmdler  aits  Aegypten  und 
Aethiopien.  Marietta,  Monuments  of  Upper  Egypt.  Alaspero, 
Egyptian  Archeology.  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  History  0}  Art  in 
Ancient  Egypt.  Prisse  d'Avennes,  Histoire  de  I' art  egyptien. 
Petrie,  History  of  Egypt;  The  Pyramids  and  Temples  of  Gizeh; 
Ten  Years'  Digging  in  Egypt,  1881-91.  Rawlinson,  History  of 
Ancient  Egypt.  Reber,  History  of  Ancient  Art.  Rossellini, 
Monumenti  del  Egitto.  Wilkinson,  Manners  and  Customs  of 
Ancient  Egyptians.  (Also  many  other  titles  under  Mariette, 
Maspero,  Naville,  and  Petrie.) 

LAND  AND  PEOPLE.  As  long  ago  as  6000  B.C.,  the  Egyptians 
were  a  people  already  highly  civilized,  and  skilled  in  the  arts  of 
peace  and  war.  The  narrow  valley  of  the  Nile,  fertilized  by  the 
periodic  overflow  of  the  river,  was  flanked  by  rocky  heights, 
nearly  vertical  in  many  places,  which  afforded  abundance  of  ex- 
cellent building  stone,  while  they  both  isolated  the  Egyptians  and 
protected  them  from  foreign  aggression.  At  the  Delta,  however, 
the  valley  widened  out,  with  the  falling  away  of  these  heights,  into 
broad  lowlands,  from  which  there  was  access  to  the  outer  world. 
Originally  divided  into  two  kingdoms,  the  whole  country  as  far 
as  to  Nubia  was  united  under  one  monarchy  at  a  period  variously 
estimated  as  from  3500  to  4500  years  B.C.,  under  a  dynasty 
known  as  the  first  of  a  series  of  twenty-six  preserved  to  us  in  the 
dynastic  lists  of  Manetho,  a  priest  of  tlvj  first  century  A.D 


EGYPTIAN   ARCHITECTURE.  7 

Menes  is  the  traditional  name  of  the  first  king  of  the  first  dynasty 
to  rule  over  lx>th  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt. 

The  art  history  of  Kgypt  may  be  divided  into  five  periods  as 
follows:* 

I.  THE  ANCIENT  EMPIRE   (cir.  3400-2160  B.C.),  comprising 
the  first  ten  dynasties,  with  Memphis  as  the  capital. 

II.  THE   FIRST  THERAN   MONARCHY  or  MIDDLE   EMPIRE 
(2160-1788  B.C.),  comprising  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  dynasties 
reigning  at  Thebes. 

The  Hyksos  invasion  or  incursion  of  the  Shepherd  Kings  in- 
terrupted the  current  of  Egyptian  art  history  for  a  period, 
with  other  disturbances,  of  some  two  hundred  years. 

III.  THE  SECOND  THEBAN   MONARCHY    (1588-1150   B.C.), 
comprising  the  eighteenth,  nineteenth  and  part  of  the  twentieth 
dynasty,  was  the  great  period  of  Egyptian  history;  the  age  of 
conquests  and  of  vast  edifices. 

IV.  THE  DECADENCE  AND  SAITIC  PERIODS  (1150-324  B.C.), 
comprising   the    remaining    dynasties    to    and    including    the 
twenty-sixth,   reigning   at  Tanis,    Bubastis  and  Sais,  and  the 
Persian  conquest;    a  period  almost  barren  of  important  monu- 
ments. 

(Periods  III.  and  IV.  constitute  together  the  period  of  the  NEW 
EMPIRE,  if  we  omit  the  Persian  dominion.) 

V.  THE  REVIVAL  (from  324  B.C.  to  cir.  330  A.D.)  comprises  the 
Ptolemaic  or  Macedonian  and  Roman  dominations. 

THE  ANCIENT  EMPIRE:  THE  PYRAMIDS.  The  great  works 
of  this  period  are  almost  exclusively  sepulchral,  and  include  the 
most  ancient  buildings  of  which  we  have  any  remains.  While 
there  is  little  of  strictly  architectural  art,  the  overwhelming  si/ce 
and  majesty  of  the  Pyramids,  and  the  audacity  and  skill  shown 
in  their  construction,  entitle  them  to  the  first  place  in  any  sketch 

*  The  dates  are  those  given  '>>'  Breasted ;  those  assigned  by 
Flinders  Petrie  are  several  centuries  earlier  for  the  earlier  dy- 
nasties. 


8 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


of  this  period.  They  number  over  a  hundred,  scattered  in  six 
groups,  from  Abu-Roash  in  the  north  to  Meidoum  in  the  south, 
and  are  of  various  shapes  and  sizes.  They  are  all  royal  tombs 
and  belong  to  the  first  twelve  dynasties;  each  contains  a  sepulchral 
chamber,  and  each  at  one  time  possessed  a  small  chapel  adjacent 
to  it,  but  this  has,  in  almost  every  case,  perished. 

Three  pyramids  surpass  all  the  rest  by  their  prodigious  size; 
these  are  at  Ghizeh  and  belong  to  the  fourth  dynasty.     They  are 


FIG.    I.  — SECTION    OP    GREAT    PYRAMID. 

rt,  King's  Chamber;  I,  Queen  s  Chamber;  c.  Chamber  cut  in  Roek. 

known  by  the  names  of  their  builders;  the  oldest  and  greatest 
being  that  of  Cheops,  or  Khufu;*  the  second,  that  of  Chephren, 
or  Khafra;  and  the  third,  that  of  Mycerinus,  or  Menkhauru. 
Other  smaller  ones  stand  at  the  feet  of  these  giants. 

The  base  of  the  "  Great  Pyramid"  measures  764  feet  on  a  side; 
its  height  is  482  feet,  and  its  volume  must  have  originally  been 
nearly  three  and  one-half  million  cubic  yards  (Fig.  i).  It  is  con- 
structed of  limestone  upon  a  plateau  of  rock  levelled  to  receive  it, 
and  was  finished  externally,  like  its  two  neighbors,  with  a  coating 
cf  polished  stone,  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  disposed  in 

*  The  Egyptian  names  known  to  antiquity  are  Riven  here  first  in 
the  more  familiar  classic  form,  and  then  in  the  Egyptian  form. 


EGYPTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


bands  of  different  colored  granites,  but  of  which  it  \vas  long  ago 
despoiled.  It  contained  three  principal  chambers  and  an  elabor- 
ate system  of  inclined  passages,  all  executed  in  finely  cut  granite 
and  limestone.  The  sarcophagus  was  in  the  uppermost  cham- 
ber, above  which  the  superincumbent 
weight  was  relieved  by  open  spaces 
and  a  species  of  rudimentary  arch  of 
A -shape  (Fig.  2).  The  other  two 
pyramids  differ  from  that  of  Cheops  in 
the  details  of  their  arrangement  and  in 
size,  not  in  the  principle  of  their  con- 
struction. Chephren  is  454  feet  high, 
with  a  base  717  feet  square.  Mycer- 
inus,  which  still  retains  its  casing  of 
pink  granite,  is  but  218  feet  in  height, 
with  a  base  253  feet  on  a  side. 

Among  the  other  pyramids  there  is 
considerable  variety  both  of  type  and 
material.  At  Sakkarah  is  one  190  feet  high,  constructed  in  six 
unequal  steps  on  a  slightly  ob- 
long base  measuring  nearly  400 
X357  feet.  It  was  attributed 
by  Mariette  to  Ouenephes,  of 
the  first  dynasty,  though  now 
more  generally  ascribed  to  Sene- 
frou  of  the  third.  At  Abu-Seir 
and  Meidoum  are  other  stepped 
pyramids ;  at  Dashour  is  one 
having  a  broken  slope,  the  lower 
part  steeper  than  the  upper. 
Several  at  Meroe  with  unusually  PI( 
steep  slopes  belong  to  the  Ethi- 
opian dynasties  of  the  Decadence, 
are  built  of  brick. 


PIG.    3. — SECTION   OP  KING'S 
CHAMBER. 


3.  — PLAN    OP    SPHINX    TKMI'LE. 


A    number  of  pyramids 


10 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


TOMBS.  The  Ancient  Empire  has  also  left  us  a  great  number 
of  tombs  of  the  type  known  as  Mastabas.  These  are  oblong 
rectangular  structures  of  stone  or  brick  with  slightly  inclined 
sides  and  flat  ceilings.  They  uniformly  face  the  east,  and  are 
internally  divided  into  three  parts:  the  chamber  or  chapel,  the 
serdab,  and  the  well.  In  the  first  of  these,  next  the  entrance,  were 
placed  the  offerings  made  to  the  Ka  or  "double,"  for  whom  also 
scenes  of  festivity  or  worship  were  carved  and  painted  on  its  walls 
to  minister  to  his  happiness  in  his  incorporeal  life.  The  serdabs, 
or  secret  inner  chambers,  of  which  there  were  several  in  each 
mastaba,  contained  statues  of  the  defunct,  by  which  the  existence 
and  identity  of  the  Ka  were  preserved.  Finally  came  the  well, 
leading  to  the  mummy  chamber,  deep  underground,  which  con- 
tained the  sarcophagus.  The  sarcophagi,  both  of  this  and  later 
ages,  are  good  examples  of  the  minor  architecture  of  Egypt;  many 
of  them  are  panelled  in  imitation  of  wooden  construction  and 
richly  decorated  with  color,  symbols,  and  hieroglyphs. 

OTHER  MONUMENTS.  Two  other  monuments  of  the  An- 
cient Empire  also  claim  attention:  the  Sphinx  and  the  adjacent 

so-called  "Sphinx  temple" 
at  Ghizeh.  The  first  of 
these,  a  huge  sculpture 
carved  from  the  rock,  rep- 
resents Harmachis  in  the 
form  of  a  human-headed 
lion.  It  is  ordinarily  partly 
buried  in  the  sand;  is  70  feet 
long  by  66  feet  high,  and 
forms  one  of  the  most  striking  monuments  of  Egyptian  art. 
Close  to  it  lie  the  nearly  buried  ruins  of  the  temple  once  sup- 
posed to  be  that  of  the  Sphinx,  but  now  proved  by  IVtrie  to  have 
been  erected  in  connection  with  the  second  pyramid.  The  plan 
and  present  aspect  of  this  venerable  edifice  are  shown  in  Figs.  } 
and  4.  The  hall  was  roofed  with  stone  lintels  carried  on  sixteen 


FIG.    4. — RUINS    OF    SPHINX    TEMPLE. 


EGYPTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


I  I 


FIG.    5. —TOMB    AT    ABYDOS. 


square  monolithic  piers  of  alabaster.      The  whole  was  buried  in 

a  rectangular  mass  of  masonry  and  revetted  internally  with  ala- 

baster, but  was  wholly  destitute  internally  as  well  as  externally 

of   decoration  or  even  of 

mouldings.      With  the  ex- 

ception of  scanty  remains 

of  a  few  of  the  pyramid- 

temples    or    chapels,    and 

the  temple  discovered    by 

Petrie  in   Meidoum,   it    is 

the  only  survival  from  the 

temple  architecture  of  that 

early  age. 

THE    MIDDLE    EMPIRE: 

TOMBS.    The  monuments  of  this  period,  as  of  the  preceding, 

are  almost  wholly  sepulchral.     We  now  encounter  two  types  of 

tombs.     One,  structural  and  pyramidal,  is  represented  by  many 

examples    at   Abydos,   the    most  venerated  of    all    the    burial 

grounds  of  Egypt  (Fig. 
5).  All  of  these  are  built 
of  brick,  and  are  of  mod- 
erate size  and  little  artis- 
tic interest.  The  second 
type  is  that  of  tombs  cut 
in  the  vertical  cliffs  of  the 
west  bank  of  the  Nile  Val- 
ley. The  entrance  to  these 
faces  eastward  as  required 
by  tradition  ;  the  remoter 


FIO.  6.-TOMB  AT 

end    of    the    excavation 

pointing  toward  the  land  of  the  Sun  of  Night.  But  such  tun- 
nels only  become  works  of  architecture  when,  in  addition  to  the 
customary  mural  paintings,  they  receive  a  decorative  treatment 
in  the  design  of  their  structural  forms.  Such  a  treatment  ap- 


12 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


pears  in  several  tombs  at  Beni-Hassan,  in  which  columns  are 
reserved  in  cutting  away  the  rock,  both  in  the  chapel-chambers 
and  in  the  vestibules  or  porches  which  precede  them.  These 
columns  are  polygonal  in  some  cases,  clustered  in  others.  The 
former  type,  with  eight,  sixteen,  or  thirty-two  sides  (in  these  last 
the  arrises  or  edges  are  emphasized  by  a  slight  concavity  in  each 
face,  like  embryonic  fluting),  have  a  square  abacus,  suggesting 
the  Greek  Doric  order,  and  giving  rise  to  the  name  proto-Doric 
(Fig.  6).  Columns  of  this  type  are  also  found  at  Karnak,  Kalab- 


FIG.    7.  —  SECTION    AND    HALF-PLAN    OF    A    TOMB    AT    BENI-HASSAN. 

she,  Amada,  and  Abydos.  A  reminiscence  of  primitive  wood 
construction  is  seen  in  the  dentils  over  the  plain  architrave  of  the 
entrance,  which  in  other  respects  recalls  the  triple  entrances  to 
certain  mastabas  of  the  Old  Empire.  These  dentils  are  imita- 
tions of  the  ends  of  rafters,  and  to  some  archaeologists  suggest  a 
wooden  origin  for  the  whole  system  of  columnar  design.  But 
these  rock-cut  shafts  and' heavy  architraves  in  no  respect  resemble 
wooden  prototypes,  but  point  rather  to  an  imitation  cut  in  the 
rock  of  a  well-developed,  pre-existing  system  of  stone  construc- 
tion, some  of  whose  details,  however,  were  undoubtedly  derived 
from  early  methods  of  building  in  wood.  The  vault  was  below 
the  chapel  and  reached  by  a  separate  entrance.  The  serdab  was 


EGYPTIAN  ARCHITECTURE.  13 

replaced  by  a  niche  in  which  was  the  figure  of  the  defunct  carved 
from  the  native  rock.  Some  of  the  tombs  employed  in  the 
chapel-chamber  columns  of  quatrefoil  section  with  capitals  like 
clustered  buds  (Fig.  7),  and  this  type  became  in  the  next  period 
one  of  the  most  characteristic  forms  of  Egyptian  architecture. 

TEMPLES.  Of  the  temples  of  this  period  only  two  have  left 
any  remains  of  importance.  Both  belong  to  the  twelfth  dynasty 
(cir.  2000  B.C.).  Of  one  of  thece  many  badly  shattered  fragments 
have  been  found  in  the  ruins  of  Bubastis;  these  show  the  clustered 
type  of  lotus-bud  column  mentioned  above.  The  other,  of  which 
a  few  columns  have  been  identified  among  the  ruins  of  the  Great 
Temple  at  Karnak,  constituted  the  oldest  part  of  that  vast  ag- 
glomeration of  religious  edifices,  and  employed  columns  of  the 
so-called  proto-Doric  type.  From  these  remains  it  appears  that 
structural  stone  columns  as  well  as  those  cut  in  the  rock  were  used 
at  this  early  period  (2000  B.C.).  Indeed,  it  is  probable  that  the 
whole  architectural  system  of  the  New  Empire  was  based  on 
models  developed  in  the  age  we  are  considering;  that  the  use  of 
multiplied  columns  of  various  types  and  the  building  of  temples 
of  complex  plan  adorned  with  colossal  statues,  obelisks,  and 
painted  reliefs  were  perfectly  understood  and  practised  in  this 
period.  But  the  works  it  produced  have  perished,  having  been 
most  probably  demolished  to  make  way  for  the  more  sumptuous 
edifices  of  later  times. 

THE  NEW  EMPIRE.  This  was  the  grand  age  of  Egyptian  ar- 
chitecture and  history.  An  extraordinary  series  of  mighty  men 
ruled  the  empire  during  a  long  period  following  the  expulsion  of 
the  Hyksos  usurpers.  The  names  of  Thothmes,  Amenophis, 
Jiatasu,*  Seti,  and  Ramesesf  made  glorious  the  eighteenth  and 

*  More    correctly    written    Thutmosis,    Amen-hotcp,    Hatshepsut. 

t  While  it  is  now  known  that  Rameses  II.  carved  his  own  car- 
touche on  many  works  erected  under  his  predecessors,  enough 
great  works — chiefly  temples — are  indisputably  of  his  reign  to  en- 
title him  to  rank  among  the  greatest  builder-monarchs  of  history. 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


a. 


to -M 


»••»*» 


nineteenth  dynasties.  Foreign  conquests  in  Ethiopia,  Syria,  and 
Assyria  enlarged  the  territory  and  increased  the  splendor  of  the 
empire.  The  majority  of  the  most  impressive  ruins  of  Egypt 
belong  to  this  period,  and  it  was  in  these  buildings  that  the  char- 
acteristic elements  of  Egyptian  archi- 
tecture were  brought  to  perfection  and 
carried  out  on  the  grandest  scale. 

TOMBS  OF  THE  NEW  EMPIRE. 
Some  of  these  are  structural,  others 
excavated;  both  types  displaying  con- 
;j  .  siderable  variety  in  arrangement  and 
Iliiiiiiif  detail.  The  rock-cut  tombs  of  Bab- 
el-Molouk,  among  which  are  twenty- 
five  royal  sepulchres,  are  striking  both 
;  by  the  simplicity  of  their  openings  and 
the  depth  and  complexity  of  their 
shafts,  tunnels,  and  chambers.  From 
the  pipe-like  length  of  their  tunnels 
f  they  have  since  the  time  of  Herodotus 
been  known  by  the  name  svrin.v. 
Every  precaution  was  taken  to  lead 
e  astray  and  baffle  the  intending  violator 
of  their  sanctity.  They  penetrated 
hundreds  of  feet  into  the  rock;  their 
chambers,  often  formed  with  columns 
and  vault-like  roofs,  were  resplendent 
with  colored  reliefs  and  ornament  des- 
tined to  solace  and  sustain  the  shadowy  Ka  until  the  soul  itself, 
the  Ba,  should  arrive  before  the  tribunal  of  Osiris,  the  Sun  of 
Night.  Most  impressively  do  these  brilliant  pictures,*  intended 
to  be  forever  shut  away  from  human  eyes,  al test  the  siiucrityof 
the  Egyptian  belief  and  the  conscientiousness  of  the  art  which  it 
inspired. 

*  See  Van  Dyke's  History  of  Painting,  Figure   i. 


FIG.    8.— PLAN   OF    THE    RAMES- 
SEUM. 

a,  Sanctuary;  b,  Hypostyle 
Hall;  c,  Second  court;  d, 
Entrance  court;  e.  Pylons. 


EGYPTIAN    ARCHITECTURE.  15 

While  the  tomb  of  the  private  citizen  was  complete  in  itself, 
containing  the  Ka-statues  and  often  the  chapel,  as  well  as  the 
mummy,  the  royal  tomb  demanded  something  more  elaborate  in 
scale  and  arrangement.  In  some  cases  external  structures  of 
temple-form  took  the  place  of  the  underground  chapel  and  serdab. 
The  royal  effigy,  many  times  repeated  in  painting  and  sculpture 
throughout  this  temple-like  edifice,  and  flanking  its  gateways  with 
colossal  seated  figures,  made  buried  Ka-statues  unnecessary.  Of 
these  sepulchral  temples  three  are  of  the  first  magnitude.  They 
are  that  of  Queen  Hatasu  (XVIIIth  dynasty)  at  Deir-el-Bahari; 
that  of  Rameses  II.  (XlXth  dynasty),  the  Ramesseum,  near  by 
to  the  southwest ;  and  that  of  Rameses  III.  (XXth  dynasty)  at  Medi- 
net  Abou  still  further  to  the  southwest.  Like  the  tombs,  these 
were  all  on  the  west  side  of  the  Nile;  so  also  was  the  sepulchral 
temple  of  Amenophis  III. (XVIIIth  dynasty),  the  Amenopheum, 
of  which  hardly  a  trace  remains  except  the  two  seated  colossi 
which,  rising  from  the  Theban  plain,  have  astonished  travellers 
from  the  times  of  Pausanias  and  Strabo  down  to  our  own.  These 
mutilated  figures,  one  of  which  has  been  known  ever  since  classic 
times  as  the  "  vocal  Memnon,"  are  56  feet  high,  and  once  flanked 
the  entrance  to  the  forecourt  of  the  temple  of  Amenophis.  The 
plan  of  the  Ramesseum,  with  its  sanctuary,  hypostyle  hall,  and 
forecourts,  its  pylons  and  obelisks,  is  shown  in  Figure  8,  and  may 
be  compared  with  those  of  other  temples  given  on  pp.  17  and  18. 
That  of  Medinet  Abou  resembles  it  closely.  The  Ramesseum 
occupies  a  rectangle  of  590X182  feet;  the  temple  of  Medinet 
Abou  measures  500  X  160  feet,  not  counting  the  extreme  width  of 
the  entrance  pylons.  The  temple  of  Hatasu  at  Deir-el-Bahari  is 
partly  excavated  and  partly  structural,  a  model  which  is  also  fol- 
lowed on  a  smaller  scale  in  several  lesser  tombs.  Such  an  edifice 
is  called  a  hemispeos. 


CHAPTER    III. 

EGYPTIAN    ARCHITECTURE— Continued. 
BOOKS  RECOMMENDED:   Same  as  for  Chapter  II. 

TEMPLES.  The  surpassing  glory  of  the  New  Empire  was  its 
great  temples.  Some  of  them  were  among  the  most  stupendous 
creations  of  structural  art.  To  temples  rather  than  palaces  were 
the  resources  and  energies  of  the  kings  devoted,  and  successive 
monarchs  found  no  more  splendid  outlet  for  their  piety  and  am- 
bition than  the  founding  of  new  temples  or  the  extension  and 
adornment  of  those  already  existing.  By  the  forced  labor  of 
thousands  of  fellaheen  (the  system  known  as  the  corvee  and  abol- 
ished only  in  recent  years  under  British  rule),  architectural  piles 
of  vast  extent  could  be  erected  within  the  lifetime  of  a  monarch. 
As  in  the  tombs  the  internal  walls  bore  pictures  for  the  contempla- 
tion of  the  Ka,  so  in  the  temples  the  external  walls,  for  the  glory 
of  the  king  and  the  delectation  of  the  people,  were  covered  with 
colored  reliefs  reciting  the  monarch's  glorious  deeds.  Internally 
the  worship  and  attributes  of  the  gods  were  represented  in  a  simi- 
lar manner,  in  endless  iteration. 

THE  TEMPLE  SCHEME.  This  is  admirably  shown  in  the 
temple  of  Khonsu,  at  Karnak,  built  by  Rameses  III.  (XXth 
dynasty),  and  in  the  temple  of  Edfou  (Figs.  9  and  10),  though  this 
belongs  to  the  Ptolemaic  period.  It  comprised  a  sanctuary  or 
sekos,  a  hypostyle  (columnar)  hall,  known  as  the  "hall  of  assem- 
bly," and  a  forecourt  preceded  by  a  double  pylon  or  gateway. 
Each  of  these  parts  might  be  made  more  or  less  complex  in  differ- 
ent temples,  but  the  essential  features  are  encountered  every- 


EGYPTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


at* 


where  under  all  changes  of  form.  The 
primitive  conception  of  the  temple 
was  no  doubt  that  of  the  house  or 
dwelling  of  the  deity,  and  this  com- 
bination of  courts,  halls,  passages  and 
chambers  was  probably  the  mere 
amplification  of  the  plans  of  early 
royal  palaces,  modified  and  extended 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  Egyp- 
tian ritual.  The  building  of  a  temple 
began  with  the  sanctuary,  which  con- 
tained the  shrine  of  the  god,  with 
sulx)rdinate  rooms  for  the  priests. 
These  chambers  were  low,  dark, 
mysterious,  accessible  only  to  the 
priests  and  king.  They  were  given 
a  certain  dignity  by  being  raised 
upon  a  sort  of  platform  above  the 
general  level,  and  reached  by  a 

few      Steps.          They     Were      SUmp-     FIG-  9-—  TEMPLE  OF  EUFOU.     PLAN. 

tuously    decorated     internally    with 

ritual  pictures  in  relief.  The  hall  was  sometimes  loftier,  but 
set  on  a  slightly  lower  level;  its  massive  columns  supported  a 
roof  of  stone  lintels,  and  light  was  admitted  either  through 
clearstory  windows  under  the  roof  of  a  central  portion  higher 
than  the  rides,  as  at  Karnak,  or  over  a  low  screen-wall  built 
between  the  columns  of  the  front  row,  as  at  Kdfou  and  Denderah. 


ifira  mi 


PIU.     10. — TKMI'LK    OP    KUPOU.      SECTION. 


i8 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


This  method  was  peculiar  to  the  Ptolemaic  and  Roman  periods. 
The  court  was  usually  surrounded  by  a  single  or  double  col- 
onnade; sometimes,  however,  this  colonnade  only  flanked  the 
sides  or  fronted  the  hall,  or  again  was  wholly  wanting.  The 
pylons  were  twin  buttress-like  masses  flanking  the  entrance 
gate  of  the  court.  They  were  shaped  like  oblong  truncated 
pyramids,  crowned  by  flaring  cornices,  and  were  decorated 
on  the  outer  face  with  masts  carrying  banners,  with  obelisks,  or 
with  seated  colossal  figures  of  the  royal  builder.  An  avenue  of 


^^^^HTuTuTj  •  •  I  -ff- 1  t 

tfe  .,  ife 


IBS 

liiS 


•^tiinun: 


=r 


FIG.    II. — TEMPLE   OF    KARN'AK.       PLAN. 


sphinxes  formed  the  approach  to  the  entrance,  and  the  whole  tem- 
ple precinct  was  surrounded  by  a  wall,  usually  of  crude  brick, 
pierced  by  one  or  more  gates  with  or  without  pylons.  The  piety 
of  successive  monarchs  was  displayed  in  the  addition  of  new 
hypostyle  halls,  courts,  pylons,  or  obelisks,  by  which  the  temple 
was  successively  extended  in  length,  and  sometimes  also  in  width, 
by  the  increased  dimensions  of  the  new  courts.  The  great  Tem- 
ple of  Karnak  most  strikingly  illustrates  tin's  growth.  Begun  by 
Osourtesen  (XTIth  dynasty)  nearly  2000  years  B.C.,  it  was  not 
completed  in  its  present  form  until  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies,  when 
the  last  of  the  pylons  and  external  gates  were  erected. 

The  variations  in  the  details  of  this  general  type  were  numerous. 
Thus,  at  Kl  Kab,  the  temple  of  Amenophis  III.  has  the  sekos  and 


EGYPTIAN  ARCHITECTURE.  *9 

hall  but  no  forecourt.  At  Deir-el-Medineh  the  hall  of  the  Ptole- 
maic Hathor-temple  is  a  mere  porch  in  two  parts,  while  the  en- 
closure within  the  circuit  wall  takes  the  place  of  the  forecourt. 
At  Karnak  all  the  parts  were  repeated  several  times,  and  under 
Amenophis  III.  (XVIIIth  dynasty)  a  wing  was  built  at  a  nearly 
right  angle  to  the  main  structure.  At  Luxor,  to  a  complete  typi- 
cal temple  were  added  three  aisles  of  an  unfinished  hypostyle 
hall,  and  an  elaborate  forecourt,  whose  axis  is  inclined  to  that  of 
the  other  buildings,  owing  to  a  bend  of  the  river  at  that  point.  At 
Abydos  a  complex  sanctuary  of  many  chambers  extends  southeast 
at  right  angles  to  the  general  mass,  and  the  first  court  is  without 
columns.  But  in  all  these  structures  a  certain  unity  of  effect  is 
produced  by  th'e  lofty  pylons,  the  flat  roofs  diminishing  in  height 
over  successive  portions  from  the  front  to  the  sanctuary,  the  slop- 
ing windowless  walls  covered  with  carved  and  painted  pictures, 
and  the  dim  and  massive  interiors  of  the  columnar  halls. 

The  size  of  these  temples  varies  greatly.  That  of  Karnak  is 
over  1 200  feet  long;  Luxor  850;  the  Ramesseum  nearly  600; 
Abydos  and  Medinet  Abou  each  500;  while  the  little  temple  of 
Dandour  measured  less  than  50  feet  in  length. 

TEMPLES  OF  KARNAK.  Of  these  various  temples  that  of 
Amen-Ra  is  incomparably  the  largest  and  most  imposing.  Its 
construction  extended  through  the  whole  duration  of  the  New 
Empire,  of  whose  architecture  it  is  a  splendid  resume  (Fig.  n). 
Its  extreme  length  is  1,215  fee*>  and  fts  greatest  width  376  feet. 
The  sanctuary  and  its  accessories,  mainly  built  by  Thothmes  I. 
and  Thothmes  III.,  cover  an  area  nearly  4$6X  290  feet  in  extent, 
and  comprise  two  hypostyle  halls  and  countless  smaller  halls  and 
chambers.  It  is  preceded  by  a  narrow  columnar  vestibule  and 
two  pylons  enclosing  a  columnar  atrium  and  two  obelisks.  This 
is  entered  from  the  Great  Hypostyle  Hall  (It  in  Fig.  1 1 ;  Fig.  12), 
the  noblest  single  work  of  Egyptian  architecture,  measuring  340 
X 170  feet,  and  containing  134  columns  in  sixteen  rows,  support- 
ing a  massive  stone  roof.  The  central  columns  with  bell-capitals 


2O  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

are  70  feet  high  and  nearly  12  feet  in  diameter;  the  others  are 
smaller  and  lower,  with  lotus-bud  capitals,  supporting  a  roof 
lower  than  that  over  the  three  central  aisles.  A  clearstory  of 
stone-grated  windows  makes  up  the  difference  in  height  between 
these  two  roofs.  The  interior,  thus  lighted,  was  splendid  with 
painted  reliefs,  which  helped  not  only  to  adorn  the  hall  but  to 
give  scale  to  its  massive  parts.  The  whole  stupendous  creation 


PIO.  12. CENTRAL  PORTION  OF  HYPOSTVLE  HALL  AT  KARN'AK. 

(From  model  in  Metropolitan  Museum,  Xew  York.) 

was  the  work  of  three  kings — Rameses  I.,  Seti  I.,  and  Ramcses  II. 
(XlXth  dynasty). 

In  front  of  it  was  the  great  court,  flanked  by  columns,  and  still 
showing  the  ruins  of  a  central  avenue  of  colossal  pillars  begun, 
but  never  completed,  by  the  Bubastid  kings  of  the  XXI  Id  dynasty. 
One  or  two  smaller  structures  and  the  curious  lateral  wing  built 
by  Amenophis  III.  interrupt  the  otherwise  orderly  and  symmetri- 
cal advance  of  this  plan  from  the  sanctuary  to  the  huge  first  pylon 
(last  in  point  of  date)  erected  by  the  Ptolemies. 

The  smaller  temple  of  Khonsu,  south  of  that  of  Amen-Ra,  has 
already  been  alluded  to  as  a  typical  example  of  templar  design. 
Next  to  Karnak  in  importance  comes  the  Temple  of  Luxor  in  its 
immediate  neighborhood.  It  has  two  forecourts  adorned  with 


EGYPTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


21 


double-aisled  colonnades  and  connected  by  what  seems  to  be  an 
unfinished  hypostyle  hall.  The  Ramesseum  and  the  temples  of 
Medinet  Abou  and  Deir-El-Bahari  have  already  been  mentioned 
(p.  15).  At  Gournah  and  Abydos  are  the  next  most  celebrated 
temples  of  this  period;  the  first  famous  for  its  rich  clustered  lotus- 
columns,  the  latter  for  its  beautiful  sanctuary  chambers,  dedi- 


PIG.     13. GREAT    TEMPLE    OP    IPSAMBOVL. 

cated  each  to  a  different  deity,  and  covered  with  delicate  painted 
reliefs  of  the  time  of  Seti  I. 

GROTTO  TEMPLES.  Two  other  styles  of  temple  remain  to 
be  noticed.  The  first  is  the  subterranean  or  grotto  temple,  of 
which  the  two  most  famous,  at  Ipsamboul  (Abou-simbel),  were 
excavated  by  Ramcses  II.  They  are  truly  colossal  conceptions, 
reproducing  in  the  native  rock  the  main  features  of  structural 
temples,  the  court  being  represented  by  the  larger  of  two  cham- 
bers in  the  Greater  Temple  (Fig.  13).  Their  facades  are  adorned 


22  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

with  colossal  seated  figures  of  the  builder;  the  smaller  has  also 
two  effigies  of  Nefert-Ari,  his  consort.  Nothing  more  striking  and 
boldly  impressive  is  to  be  met  with  in  Egypt  than  these  singular 
rock-cut  facades.  Other  rock-cut  temples  of  more  modest 
dimensions  are  at  Addeh,  Feraig,  Beni-Hassan  (the  "Speos 
Artemidos"),  Beit-el-Wali,  and  Silsileh.  At  Gherf-Hossein, 
Asseboua,  and  Derri  are  temples  partly  excavated  and  partly 
structural. 

PERIPTERAL  TEMPLES.  The  last  type  of  temple  to  be  no- 
ticed is  represented  by  only  three  or  four  structures  of  moderate 
size;  it  is  the  peripteral,  in  which  a  small  chamber  is  surrounded 
by  columns,  usually  mounted  on  a  terrace  with  vertical  walls. 
They  were  mere  chapels,  but  are  among  the  most  graceful  of 
existing  ruins.  At  Phike  are  two  structures,  one  by  Nectanebo, 
the  other  Ptolemaic,  resembling  peripteral  temples,  but  without 
cella-chambers  or  roofs.  They  may  have  been  waiting-pavilions 
for  the  adjoining  temples.  That  at  Elephantine  (Amenophis 
III.)  has  square  piers  at  the  sides,  and  columns  only  at  the  ends. 
Another  by  Thothmes  II.,  at  Medinet  Abou,  formed  only  a  part 
(the  sekos?)  of  a  larger  plan.  At  Edfou  is  another,  belonging  to 
the  Ptolemaic  period. 

LATER  TEMPLES.  After  the  architectural  inaction  of  the 
Decadence  came  a  marvellous  recrudescence  of  splendor  under 
the  Ptolemies,  whose  Hellenic  origin  and  sympathies  did  not  lead 
them  into  the  mistaken  effort  to  impose  Greek  models  upon 
Egyptian  art.  The  temples  erected  under  their  dominion,  and 
later  under  Roman  rule,  vied  with  the  grandest  works  of  the 
Ramessida^,  and  surpassed  them  in  the  rich  elaboration  and  vari- 
ety of  their  architectural  details.  The  temple  at  Edfou  (Figs. 
9,  10,  14)  is  the  most  perfectly  preserved,  and  conforms  most 
closely  to  the  typical  plan;  that  of  Isis,  at  Phihc,  is  the  most  elab- 
orate and  ornate.  Dcnderah  also  possesses  a  group  of  admirably 
preserved  temples  of  the  same  period.  At  Esneh,  and  at  Kalab- 
she'  and  Kardassy  or  Ghertashi  in  Nubia  are  others.  In  all  these 


EGYPTIAN   ARCHITECTURE.  23 

one  notes  innovations  of  detail  and  a  striving  for  effect  quite 
different  from  the  simpler  majesty  of  the  preceding  age  (Fig.  14). 
One  peculiar  feature  is  the  use  of  screen  walls  built  into  the  front 
rows  of  columns  of  the  hypostyle  hall.  Light  was  admitted  above 
these  walls,  which  measured  about  half  the  height  of  the  columns 
and  were  interrupted  at  the  centre  by  a  curious  doorway  cut 
through  their  whole  height  and  without  any  lintel.  Long  disused 
types  of  capital  were  revived  and  others  greatly  elaborated;  and 


F:G.  14.-— EDFOP.  FRONT  OF  HYPOSTYLE  HALL. 

the  wall-reliefs  were  arranged  in  bands  and  panels  with  a  regu- 
larity and  symmetry  rather  Greek  than  Egyptian. 

ARCHITECTURAL  DETAILS.  With  the  exception  of  a  few 
purely  utilitarian  vaulted  structures,  all  Egyptian  architecture 
was  based  on  the  principle  of  the  lintel.  Artistic  splendor  de- 
pended upon  the  use  of  painted  and  carved  pictures,  and  the 
decorative  treatment  of  the  very  simple  supports  employed. 
Piers  and  columns  sustained  the  roofs  of  such  chambers  as  were 
too  wide  for  single  lintels,  and  produced,  in  halls  like  those  of 
Karnak,  of  the  Ramesseum,  or  of  Denderah,  a  stupendous  effect 
by  their  height,  massivcness,  number,  and  colored  decoration. 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


The  simplest  piers  were  plain  square  shafts;  others,  more  elabo- 
rate, had  lotus  stalks  and  flowers  or  heads  of  Hathor  carved  upon 
them.  The  most  striking  were  those  against  whose  front  faces 
were  carved  colossal  figures  of  Osiris,  as  at  Luxor,  Medinet  Abou, 
and  Karnak  (Fig.  15).  The  columns, 
which  were  seldom  over  six  diameters 
in  height,  were  treated  with  greater 
variety;  the  shafts,  slightly  tapering 
upward,  were  either  round  or  clustered 
in  section,  and  usually  contracted  at 
the  base.  The  capitals  with  which 
they  were  crowned  were  usually  of 
one  of  the  five  chief  types  described 
below.  Besides  round  and  clustered 
shafts,  the  Middle  Empire  and  a  few 
of  the  earlier  monuments  of  the  New 
Empire  employed  polygonal  or  slightly 
tinted  shafts  (see  p.  i?),  as  at  Beni- 
Hassan  and  Karnak;  these  had  a  plain 
square  abacus,  with  sometimes  a 

cushion-like  echinus  beneath  it.     A  round  plinth  served  as  a 
base  for  most  of  the  columns. 

CAPITALS.  The  five  chief  types  of  capital  were:  a,  the  cam- 
pani/orm  or  inverted  bell  (central  aisles  at  Karnak,  Luxor,  the 
Ramesseum);  />,  the  clustered  lotus-bud  (Beni-Hassan,  Karnak, 
Luxor,  Gournah,  etc.) ;  r,  the  plain  lotus-bud  as  at  Karnak  (Great 
Hall);  d,  the  palm-capital,  frequent  in  the  later  temples;  and 
e,  the  Hathor-headed,  in  which  heads  of  Hathor  adorn  the  four 
faces  of  a  cubical  mass  surmounted  by  a  model  of  a  shrine  (Se- 
dinga,  Edfou,  Denderah,  Esneh).  These  types  were  richly  em- 
bellished and  varied  by  the  Ptolemaic  architects,  who  gave  a 
clustered  or  quatrefoil  plan  to  the  bell-capital,  or  adorned  its  sur- 
face with  palm  leaves.  A  few  other  forms  are  met  with  as  excep- 
tions. They  are  shown  in  Fig.  16. 


FIG.     15. OSIRIS    PIER 

UINET    ABOU). 


EGYPTIAN   ARCHITECTURE.  25 

Every  part  of  the  column  was  richly  decorated  in  color.  Lotus- 
leave*  or  petals  swathed  the  swelling  lower  part  of  the  shaft, 
which  was  elsewhere  covered  with  successive  bands  of  carved 
pictures  and  of  hieroglyphics.  The  capital  was  similarly  covered 
with  carved  and  painted  ornament,  usually  of  lotus-flowers  or 
leaves,  or  alternate  stalks  of  lotus  and  papyrus. 

The  lintels  were  plain  and  square  in  section,  and  often  of  pro- 
digious size.  Where  they  appeared  externally  they  were  crowned 


FIG.     I  6. TYPES    OF    COLUMN. 

a,  Cainpaniform;  b,  Clustered  Lotus-Column:  c.  Simple  Lotus-Column;  d,  Pa!»t- 
Colutnn;  f,  Hathor-headed  Column. 


with  a  simple  cavetto  cornice,  its  curved  surface  covered  with 
colored  flutings  alternating  with  cartouches  of  hieroglyphics. 
Sometimes,  especially  on  the  screen  walls  of  the  Ptolemaic  age, 
this  was  surmounted  by  a  cresting  of  adders  or  unui  in  closely 
serried  rank.  No  other  form  of  cornice  or  cresting  is  met  with. 
Mouldings  as  a  means  of  architectural  effect  were  singularly  lack- 
ing in  Egyptian  architecture.  The  only  moulding  known  is  the 
clustered  torus  (tor  us  =  a  convex  moulding  of  semicircular  pro- 
file), which  resembles  a  bundle  of  reeds  tied  together  with  cords 
or  ribbons.  It  forms  an  astragal  under  the  cavetto  cornice  and 
runs  down  the  angles  of  the  pylons  and  walls. 

POLYCHROMY  AND   ORNAMENT.       Color  was  absolutely  es- 
sential to  the  decorative  scheme.     In  the  vast  and  dim  interiors, 


26 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


•rir 


FIG.     I?. EGYPTIAN    FLORAL 

ORNAMENT-FORMS. 


as  well  as  in  the  blinding  glare  of  the  sun,  mere  sculpture  or  relief 
would  have  been  wasted.  The  application  of  brilliant  color  to 
pictorial  forms  cut  in  low  relief,  or  outlined  by  deep  incision  with 
the  edges  of  the  figures  delicately  rounded  (intaglio  riliei'o),  was 
the  most  appropriate  treatment  possible.  The  walls  and  col- 
umns were  covered  with  pictures  treated 
in  this  way,  and  the  ceilings  and  lintels 
were  embellished  with  symbolic  forms  in 
the  same  manner.  All  the  ornaments, 
as  distinguished  from  the  paintings, 
were  symbolical,  at  least  in  their  origin. 
Over  the  gateway  was  the  solar  disk  or 
globe  with  wide-spread  wings,  the  sym- 
bol of  the  sun  winging  its  way  to  the 
conquest  of  night;  upon  the  ceiling 
were  sacred  vultures,  zodiacs,  or  stars 

spangled  on  a  blue  ground.  Externally  the  temples  presented 
only  masses  of  unbroken  wall;  but  these,  as  well  as  the  pylons, 
were  covered  with  huge  pictures  of  a  historical  character.  Unly 
in  the  tombs  do  we  find  painted  ornament  of  a  purely  con- 
ventional sort  (Fig.  17).  Rosettes,  diaper  patterns,  spirals, 
and  checkers  are  to  be  met  with  in  them;  but  many  of  these  can 
be  traced  to  symbolic  origins.* 

DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE.  The  only  remains  of 
palaces  are  the  pavilion  of  Rameses  III.  at  Medinet  Abou,  and 
another  at  Semneh.  The  Royal  Labyrinth  has  so  completely 
perished  that  even  its  site  is  uncertain.  The  Egyptians  lived  so 
much  out  of  doors  that  the  house  was  a  less  important  edifice  than 
in  colder  climates.  Egyptian  dwellings  were  probably  in  most 
cases  built  of  wood  or  crude  brick,  and  their  disappearance  is 
thus  easily  explained.  Relief  pictures  on  the  monuments  indi- 

*  See  ("loodycar's  (,'niiiiintir  «[  I  lie  Loins  for  an  rlalx  irate  and  in- 
genious presentation  of  tlir  theory  of  a  common  lotus-origin  for 
all  the  conventional  forms  occurring  in  H}j;\ptian  ornament. 


EGYPTIAN   ARCHITECTURE.  27 

cate  the  use  of  wooden  framing  for  the  walls,  which  were  probably 
filled  in  with  crude  brick  or  panels  of  wood.  The  larger  houses 
had  extensive  plans  with  outer  and  inner  courts  surrounded  by 
porticoes  and  by  the  various  halls  and  chambers  for  the  family, 
guests  and  dependents.  The  larger  halls  probably  had  wooden 
ceilings  supported  by  wooden  posts,  which,  like  the  Walls  of 
framed  wood  or  of  unbaked  brick,  have  long  since  perished. 
The  architecture  was  probably  simple.  Gateways  like  those 
of  the  temples  on  a  smaller  scale,  the  cavetto  cornice  on  the 
walls,  and  occasionally  carved  columns  of  wood  or  stone,  were 
the  only  details  pretending  to  architectural  splendor.  The 
ground-plans  of  many  houses  in  ruined  cities,  as  at  Tel-el- 
Amarna  and  a  nameless  city  of  Amenophis  IV.,  are  discernible 
in  the  ruins;  but  the  superstructures  are  wholly  wanting. 

MONUMENTS:  The  principal  necropolis  regions  of  Egypt  are 
centred  about  Ghizeh  and  ancient  Memphis  for  the  Old  Empire 
(pyramids  and  mastabas),  Thebes  for  the  Middle  Empire  (Silsileh, 
Beni-Hassan),  and  Thebes  (Vale  of  the  Kings,  Vale  of  the  Queens) 
and  Abydos  for  the  New  Empire. 

The  Old  Empire  has  also  left  us  the  Sphinx,  Sphinx  temple,  and 
the  temple  at  Meidoum. 

The  most  important  temples  of  the  New  Empire  were  those  of 
Karnak  (the  great  temple,  the  southern  or  temple  of  Khonsu,  by 
Rameses  III.),  of  Luxor  (Rameses  II.),  Medinet  Abou  (great  tem- 
ple of  Rameses  III.,  lesser  temples  of  Thothmes  II.  and  III.  with 
peripteral  sekos ;  also  Pavilion  of  Rameses  III.)  ;  of  Abydos  (Seti 
I.  and  Rameses  II.)  ;  of  Gournah ;  of  Eilithyia  (Amenophis  III.)  ; 
of  Soleb  and  Sesebi  in  Nubia;  of  Elephantine  (peripteral,  by  Amen- 
ophis III.)  ;  the  tomb  temple  of  Queen  Hatasu  at  Deir-el-Bahari, 
the  Ramesseum  (Rameses  II.)  ;  the  Amenopheum  (Amenophis 
III.);  hcmispeos  at  Gherf  Hossein ;  two  grotto  temples  at  Ipsam- 
boul  (Rameses  II.). 

At  Meroe  are  pyramids  of  the  Ethiopia  kings  of  the  Decadence. 

Temples  of  the   Ptolemaic  period;   Phihe,   Denderah,   Kdfon. 

Temples  of  the  Roman  period;  Kouni  Ombos;  Kalabshe,  Kar- 
dassy  and  Dandour  in  Nubia;  Esneh. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

CHALDEAN   AND   ASSYRIAN    ARCHITECTURE. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED:  As  before,  Reber.  Also,  Babelon, 
Manual  0}  Oriental  Antiquities.  Botta  and  Flandin,  Monuments 
de  Ninive.  Layard,  Discoveries  in  Nineveh;  Nineveh  and  its 
Remains.  Loftus,  Travels  and  Researches  in  Chaldcca  and  Su- 
siana.  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  History  oj  Art  in  Chaldtca  and  As- 
syria. Peters,  Nippur.  Place,  Ninive  et  I'Assyrie. 

SITUATION;  HISTORIC  PERIODS.  The  Tigro-Euphrates  val- 
ley was  the  seat  of  a  civilization  nearly  or  quite  as  old  as  that  of 
the  Nile,  though  inferior  in  its  monumental  art.  The  kingdoms 
of  Chaldaea  and  Assyria  which  ruled  in  this  valley,  sometimes  as 
rivals  and  sometimes  as  subjects  one  of  the  other,  differed  con- 
siderably in  character  and  culture.  But  the  scarcity  of  timber 
and  the  lack  of  good  building-stone  except  in  the  limestone  table- 
lands and  more  distant  mountains  of  upper  Mesopotamia,  the 
abundance  of  clay,  and  the  flatness  of  the  country,  imposed  upon 
the  builders  of  both  nations  similar  restrictions  of  conception, 
form,  and  material.  Both  peoples,  moreover,  were  probably,  in 
part  at  least,  of  Semitic  race.*  The  Chaldaeans  had  attained  a 
high  civilization  before  4000  B.C.,  and  had  for  centuries  main- 
tained fixed  institutions  and  practised  the  arts  and  sciences  when 
the  Assyrians  began  their  career  as  a  nation  of  conquerors  by  re- 
ducing ChaUhea  to  subjection. 

*  This  is  denied  by  some  recent  writers,  so  far  as  the  Chald;eans 
arc  concerned,  and  is  not  intended  here  to  apply  to  the  Accadians 
and  Summerians  of  primitive  Chaldita. 


CHALD.EAN   AND   ASSYRIAN   ARCHITECTURE.         2$ 

The  history  of  Chakkeo-Assyrian  art  may  be  divided  into  three 
main  periods,  as  follows: 

1.  The  EARLY  CHALDEAN,  4000  to  1250  B.C. 

2.  The  ASSYRIAN,  1250  to  606  B.C. 

3.  The  BABYLONIAN,  606  to  538  B.C. 

In  538  the  empire  fell  before  the  Persians. 

GENERAL  CHARACTER  OF  MONUMENTS.  Recent  excava- 
tions at  Nippur  (Niffer),  the  sacred  city  of  Chakkea,  have 
uncovered  ruins  older  than  the  Pyramids.  Though  of  slight 
importance  architecturally,  they  reveal  the  early  knowledge  of  the 
arch  and  the  possession  of  an  advanced  culture.  The  poverty  of 
the  building  materials  of  this  region  afforded  only  the  most  lim- 
ited resources  for  architectural  effect.  Owing  to  the  flatness  of 
the  country  and  the  impracticability  of  building  lofty  structures 
with  sun-dried  bricks,  elevation  above  the  plain  could  be  secured 
only  by  erecting  buildings  of  moderate  height  upon  enormous 
mounds  or  terraces,  built  of  crude  brick  and  faced  with  hard 
brick  or  stone.  This  led  to  the  development  of  the  stepped  pyra- 
mid as  the  typical  form  of  Chakkeo-Assyrian  architecture. 
Thick  walls  were  necessary  both  for  stability  and  for  protection 
from  the  burning  heat  of  that  climate.  The  lack  of  stone  for  col- 
umns and  the  difficulty  of  procuring  heavy  beams  for  long  spans 
made  broad  halls  and  chambers  impossible.  The  plans  of  Assy- 
rian palaces  look  like  assemblages  of  long  corridors  and  small 
cells  (Fig.  18).  Neither  the  wooden  post  nor  the  column  played 
any  part  in  this  architecture  except  for  window-mullions  and  sub- 
ordinate members.*  It  is  probable  that  the  vault  was  used  for 
roofing  many  of  the  halls;  the  arch  was  certainly  employed  for 
doors  and  the  barrel-vault  for  the  drainage-tunnels  under  the  ter- 
races, made  necessary  by  the  heavy  rainfall.  What  these  struc- 

*  Sec  Fergusson,  Palaces  of  Ninci'di  and  Pcrscpolis,  for  an  in- 
genious but  unsubstantiated  argument  for  the  use  of  columns  in 
Assyrian  palaces. 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


tures  lacked  in  durability  and  height  was  made  up  in  decorative 
magnificence.  The  interior  walls  were  wainscoted  to  a  height  of 
eight  or  nine  feet  with  alabaster  slabs  covered  with  those  low- 
relief  pictures  of  hunting  scenes,  battles,  and  gods,  which  now 
enrich  the  museums  of  London,  Paris,  and  other  modern  cities. 


§ 


i. 


-PALACE    OF    SARGON    AT    KHORSABAD. 


Elsewhere  painted  plaster  or  more  durable  enamelled  tile  in  bril- 
liant colors  embellished  the  walls,  and,  doubtless,  rugs  and  tapes- 
tries added  their  richness  to  this  architectural  splendor. 

CHALD^EAN  ARCHITECTURE.  The  ruins  at  Mugheir  (the 
Biblical  Ur),  dating,  perhaps,  from  2200  H.C.,  belong  to  the  two- 
storied  terrace  or  platform  of  a  temple  to  Sin  or  Hurki.  The  wall 
of  sun-dried  brick  is  faced  with  enamelled  tile.  The  shrine, 
which  was  probably  small,  has  wholly  disappeared  from  the  sum- 


CHALD/EAN   AND   ASSYRIAN   ARCHITECTURE.         31 

mit  of  the  mound.  At  Warka  (the  ancient  Erech)  are  two  terrace- 
walls  of  palaces,  one  of  which  is  ornamented  with  convex  flutings 
and  with  a  species  of  mosaic  in  checker  patterns  and  zigzags, 
formed  by  terra-cotta  cones  or  spikes  driven  into  the  clay,  their 
exposed  bases  being  enamelled  in  the  desired  colors.  The  other 
shows  a  system  of  long,  narrow  panels,  in  a  style  suggesting  the 
influence  of  Egyptian  models  through  some  as  yet  unknown  chan- 
nel. This  panelling  became  a  common  feature  of  the  later  Assyr- 
ian art  (see  Eig.  19).  At  Birs-Nimroud  are  the  ruins  of  a  stepped 
pyramid  surmounted  by  a  small  shrine.  Its  seven  stages  are  said 
to  have  been  originally  faced  with  glazed  tile  of  the  seven  planet- 
ary colors,  gold,  silver,  yellow,  red,  blue,  white,  and  black.  The 
ruins  at  Nippur,  which  comprise  temples,  altars,  and  dwellings 
dating  from  4000  B.C.,  have  been  alluded  to.  Babylon,  the  later 
capital  of  Chalda?a,  to  which  the  shapeless  mounds  of  Mujelibeh 
and  Kasr  seem  to  have  belonged,  has  left  no  other  recognizable 
vestige  of  its  ancient  magnificence. 

ASSYRIAN  ARCHITECTURE.  Abundant  ruins  exist  of  Nine- 
veh, the  Assyrian  capital,  and  its  adjacent  palace-sites.  Excava- 
tions at  Koyunjik,  Khorsabad,  and  Nimroud  have  laid  bare  a 
number  of  these  royal  dwellings.  Among  them  are  the  palace  of 
Assur-nazir-pal  (885  B.C.)  and  two  palaces  of  Shalmaneser  II. 
(850  B.C.)  at  Nimroud;  the  great  palace  of  Sargon  at  Khorsabad 
(721  B.C.);  that  of  Sennacherib  at  Koyunjik  (704  B.C.);  of  Esar- 
haddon  at  Nimroud  (650  B.C.);  and  of  Assur-bani-pal  at  Koyun- 
jik (660  B.C.).  All  of  these  palaces  are  designed  on  the  same 
general  principle,  best  shown  by  the  plan  (Eig.  18)  of  the  palace 
of  Sargon  at  Khorsabad,  excavated  by  Botta  and  Place. 

In  this  palace  two  large  and  several  smaller  courts  are  sur- 
rounded by  a  complex  series  of  long,  narrow  halls  and  small, 
square  chambers.  One  court  probably  belonged  to  the  harem, 
another  to  the-  king's  apartments,  others  to  dependents  and  to  the 
service  of  the  palace.  The  crude  brick  walls  are  immensely  thick 
and  without  windows,  the  only  openings  being  for  doors.  The 


32  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

absence  of  columns  made  wide  halls  impossible,  and  great  size 
could  only  be  attained  in  the  direction  of  length.  A  terraced 
pyramid  supported  an  altar  or  shrine  to  the  southwest  of  the  pal- 
ace; at  the  west  corner  was  a  temple,  the  substructure  of  which 
was  crowned  by  a  cavetto  cornice  showing  plainly  the  influence  of 
Egyptian  models.  The  whole  palace  stood  upon  a  stupendous 
platform  faced  with  cut  stone,  an  unaccustomed  extravagance  in 
Assyria. 

ARCHITECTURAL  DETAILS.      There  is  no  evidence  that  the 
Assyrians  ever  used  columnar  supports  except  in  minor  or  acces- 


FIG.     IQ. GATE,     K.HORSABAD. 

sory  details.  There  are  few  halls  in  any  of  the  ruins  too  wide  to  be 
spanned  by  good  Syrian  cedar  beams  or  palm  timbers,  and  these 
few  cases  seem  to  have  had  vaulted  ceilings.  So  clumsy  a  feature 
as  the  central  wall  in  the  great  hall  of  Esarhaddon's  palace  at 
Nimroud  would  never  have  been  resorted  to  for  the  support  of  the 
ceiling  had  the  Assyrians  been  familiar  with  the  use  of  columns. 
That  they  understood  the  arch  and  vault  is  proved  by  their  ad- 
mirable terrace-drains  and  the  fine  arched  gate  in  the  walls  of 
Khorsabad  (Fig.  19),  as  well  as  by  bas-reliefs  representing  dwell- 
ings with  domes  of  various  forms.  Moreover,  a  few  vaulted 


CHALD/EAN   AND   ASSYRIAN   ARCHITECTURE.         33 

chambers  of  moderate  size,  and  fallen  fragments  of  crude  brick 
vaulting  of  larger  span,  have  been  found  in  several  of  the  Assyrian 
ruins. 

The  construction  was  extremely  simple.  The  heavy  clay  walls 
were  faced  with  alabaster,  burned  brick,  or  enamelled  tiles.  The 
roofs  were  probably  covered  with  stamped  earth,  and  sometimes 
paved  on  top  with  tiles  or  slabs  of  alabaster  to  form  terraces. 
Light  was  introduced  most  probably  through  windows  immedi- 
ately under  the  roof  and  divided  by  small  columns  forming  mul- 
lions,  as  suggested  by  certain  relief  pictures.  No  other  system 
seems  consistent  with  the  windowless  walls  of  the  ruins.  It  is 
possible  that  many  rooms  depended  wholly  on  artificial  light  or  on 
the  scant  rays  coming  through  open  doors.  To  this  day,  in  the 
hot  season  the  population  of  Mosul  takes  refuge  from  the  torrid 
heats  of  summer  in  windowless  basements  lighted  only  by  lamps. 

ORNAMENT.  The  only  structural  decorations  seem  to  have 
been  the  panelling  of  exterior  walls  in  a  manner  resembling  the 
Chaldican  terrace-walls,  and  a  form  of  parapet  like  a  stepped 
cresting.  There  were  no  characteristic  mouldings,  architraves, 
capitals,  or  cornices.  Nearly  all  the  ornament  was  of  the  sort 
called  applied,  i.e.,  added  after  the  completion  of  the  structure 
itself.  Pictures  in  low  relief  covered  the  alabaster  revetment. 
They  depicted  hunting-scenes,  battles,  deities,  and  other  mytho- 
logical subjects,  and  are  interesting  to  the  architect  mainly  for 
their  occasional  representations  of  buildings  and  details  of  con- 
struction. Above  this  wainscot  were  friezes  of  enamelled  brick 
ornamented  with  symbolic  forms  used  as  decorative  motives; 
winged  bulls,  the  "sacred  tree"  and  mythological  monsters,  with 
rosettes,  palmettes,  lotus-flowers,  and  guilloches  (ornaments  of 
interlacing  bands  winding  about  regularly  spaced  buttons  or 
eyes).  These  ornaments  were  also  used  on  the  archivolts  around 
the  great  arches  of  palace  gates.  The  most  singular  adornments 
of  these  gates  were  the  carved  "portal  guardians"  set  into  deep 
jambs — colossal  monsters  with  the  bodies  of  bulls,  the  wings  of 


34 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


eagles,  and  human  heads  of  terrible  countenance.  Of  mighty 
bulk,  they  were  yet  minutely  wrought  in  every  detail  of  head- 
dress, beard,  feathers,  curly  hair,  and  anatomy. 

The  purely  conventional  ornaments  mentioned  above — the 
rosette,  guilloche,  and  lotus-flower,  and  probably  also  the  pal- 

mette — were  derived  from  Egyp- 
tian originals.  They  were  treated, 
however,  in  a  quite  new  spirit  and 
adapted  to  the  special  materials 
and  uses  of  their  environment. 
Thus  the  form  of  the  palmette, 
even  if  derived,  as  is  not  unlikely, 
from  the  Egyptian  lotus-motive, 
was  assimilated  to  the  more  fa- 
miliar palm-forms  of  Assyria 
(Fig.  20). 

Assyrian  architecture  never  rivalled  the  Egyptian  in  grandeur 
or  constructive  power,  in  seriousness,  or  the  higher  artistic  quali- 
ties. It  did,  however,  produce  imposing  results  with  the  poorest 
resources,  and  in  its  use  of  the  arch  and  its  development  of  orna- 
mental forms  it  furnished  prototypes  for  some  of  the  most  charac- 
teristic features  of  later  Asiatic  art,  which  profoundly  influenced 
both  Greek  and  Byzantine  architecture. 

MONUMENTS.  The  most  important  Chaldaean  and  Assyrian 
monuments  of  which  there  are  extant  remains,  have  already  been 
enumerated  in  the  text.  It  is  therefore  unnecessary  to  duplicate 
the  list  here. 


FIG.     20. ASSYRIAN    ORNAMENT. 


CHAPTER   V. 
PERSIAN,   LYCIAN    AND   JEWISH    ARCHITECTURE. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED:  As  before,  Babelon,  Reber.  Also 
Bliss,  Excavations  at  Jerusalem.  Dieulafoy,  L'Art  antique  de  la 
Perse,  and  L 'Aero pole  de  Suse.  Fellows,  Account  of  Discoveries  in 
Lycia.  Fergusson,  The  Temple  at  Jerusalem.  Flandin  et  Coste, 
Perse  ancicnne.  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  History  oj  Art  in  Persia; 
History  oj  Art  in  Phrygia,  Lydia,  Carlo,,  and  Lycia;  History  oj 
Art  in  Sardinia  and  Jnda;a.  Texier,  L'Armenie  et  la  Perse; 
L'Asie  Mineurc.  De  Vogue,  Le  Temple  de  Jerusalem. 

PERSIAN  ARCHITECTURE.  With  the  Persians,  who  under 
Cyrus  (536  B.C.)  and  Cambyses  (525  B.C.)  became  the  masters 
of  the  Orient,  the  Aryan  race  superseded  the  Semitic,  and  assimi- 
lated in  new  combinations  the  forms  it  borrowed  from  the  Assyrian 
civilization.  Under  the  Achrcmenidrc  (536  to  330  B.C.)  palaces 
were  built  in  Persepolis  and  Susa  of  a  splendor  and  majesty  im- 
possible in  Mesopotamia,  and  rivalling  the  marvels  in  the  Nile 
Valley.  The  conquering  nation  of  warriors  who  had  overthrown 
the  Egyptians  and  Assyrians  was  in  turn  conquered  by  the  arts  of 
its  vanquished  foes,  and  speedily  became  the  most  luxurious  of  all 
nations.  The  Persians  were  not  great  innovators  in  art;  but  in 
habiting  a  land  of  excellent  building  resources,  they  were  able  to 
combine  the  Egyptian  system  of  interior  columns  with  details 
l>orrowed  from  Assyrian  art,  and  suggestions,  derived  most  prob- 
ably from  the  general  use  in  Persia  and  Central  Asia,  of  wooden 
posts  or  columns  as  intermediate  supports.  Out  of  these  ele- 
ments they  evolved  an  architecture  which  has  only  become  fully 
known  to  us  since  the  excavations  of  M.  and  Mme.  Dieulafoy 
at  Susa  in  1882. 


36  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

ELEMENTS  OF  PERSIAN  ARCHITECTURE.  The  Persians 
used  both  crude  and  baked  bricks,  the  latter  far  more  freely  than 
was  practicable  in  Assyria,  owing  to  the  greater  abundance  of 
fuel.  Walls  when  built  of  the  weaker  material  were  faced  with 
baked  brick  enamelled  in  brilliant  colors,  or  both  moulded  and 
enamelled,  to  form  colored  pictures  in  relief.  Stone  was  employed 
for  walls  and  columns,  and,  in  conjunction  with  brick,  for  the 
jambs  and  lintels  of  doors  and  windows.  Architraves  and  ceiling- 
beams  were  of  wood.  The  palaces  were  erected,  as  in  Assyria, 
upon  broad  platforms,  partly  cut  in  the  rock  and  partly  structural, 
approached  by  imposing  flights  of  steps.  These  palaces  were 
composed  of  detached  buildings,  propykcas  or  gates  of  honor,  vast 
audience-halls,  called  apadanas,  open  on  one  or  two  sides,  and 
chambers  or  dwellings  partly  enclosing  or  flanking  these  halls,  or 
grouped  in  separate  buildings.  Temples  appear  to  have  been  of 
small  importance,  perhaps  owing  to  habits  of  out-of-door  worship 
of  fire  and  sun.  There  are  few  structural  tombs,  but  there  are  a 
number  of  imposing  royal  sepulchres  cut  in  the  rock  at  Naksh-i- 
Roustam. 

ARCHITECTURAL  DETAILS.  The  Persians,  like  the  Egyp- 
tians, used  the  column  as  an  internal  feature  in  hypostyle  halls  of 
great  size,  and  externally  to  form  porches,  and  perhaps,  also,  open 
kiosks  without  walls.  The  great  Hall  of  Xerxes  at  Persepolis 
covers  100,000  square  feet — more  than  double  the  area  of  the 
Hypostyle  Hall  at  Karnak.  But  the  Persian  column  was  derived 
from  wooden  prototypes  and  used  with  wooden  architraves,  per- 
mitting a  wider  spacing  than  is  possible  with  stone.  In  the 
present  instance  thirty-six  columns  sufficed  for  an  area  nearly 
equal  to  that  which  in  the  Karnak  hall  contained  one  hundred 
and  thirty-four.  The  shafts  being  slender  and  finely  fluted 
instead  of  painted  or  carved,  the  effect  produced  was  totally 
different  from  that  sought  by  the  Egyptians.  The  most  striking 
peculiarity  of  the  column  was  the  capital,  which  was  forked 
(Eig.  21).  In  one  of  the  two  principal  types  the  fork,  formed  by 


PERSIAN,    LYCIAN,   AND   JEWISH    ARCHITECTURE.      37 


the  coupled  fore-parts  of  bulls  or  symbolic  monsters,  rested 
directly  on  the  top  of  the  shaft.  In  the  other,  two  singular  mem- 
bers were  interj>osed  between  the  fork  and  the  shaft;  the  lower, 

a  sort  of  double  bell  or  bell-and-palm   

capital,  and  above  it,  just  beneath  the 
fork,  a  curious  combination  of  vertical 
scrolls  or  volutes,  resembling  certain 
ornaments  seen  in  Assyrian  furniture 
The  transverse  architrave  rested  in  the 
fork;  the  longitudinal  architrave  was 
supported  on  the  heads  of  the  mon- 
sters. A  rich  moulded  base,  rather 
high  and  in  some  cases  adorned  with 
carved  leaves  or  flutings,  supported  the 
columns,  which  in  the  Hall  of  Xerxes 
were  over  66  feet  high  and  6  feet  in 
diameter.  The  architraves  have  per- 
ished, but  the  rock-cut  tomb  of  Darius 
at  Naksh-i-Roustam  reproduces  in  its 
facade  a  palace-front,  showing  a 
banded  architrave  with  dentils — an  ob- 
vious imitation  of  the  ends  of  wooden  raf- 
ters on  a  lintel  built  up  of  several  beams. 
These  features  of  the  architrave,  as 
well  as  the  fine  flutings  and  moulded 

bases  of  the  columns,  are  found  in  Ionic  architecture,  and 
in  part,  at  least,  in  Lycian  tombs.  As  all  these  examples  date 
from  nearly  the  same  period,  the  origin  of  these  forms  and  their 
mutual  relations  have  not  been  fully  determined.  The  Persian 
capitals,  however,  are  unique,  and  so  far  as  known,  without  direct 
prototypes  or  derivatives.  Their  constituent  elements  may  have 
been  borrowed  from  various  sources.  One  can  hardly  help  seeing 
the  Egyptian  palm-capital  in  the  lower  member  of  the  compound 
type  (Fig.  21 ). 


IOLUMN    FROM    PER- 
SEPOLIS. 


38  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

The  doors  and  windows  had  banded  architraves  or  trims  and 
cavetto  cornices  very  Egyptian  in  character.  The  portals  were 
flanked,  as  in  Assyria,  by  winged  monsters;  but  these  were  built 
up  in  several  courses  of  stone,  not  carved  from  single  blocks  like 
their  prototypes.  Plaster  or,  as  at  Susa,  enamelled  bricks,  re- 
placed as  a  wall-finish  the  Assyrian  alabaster  wainscot.  These 
bricks,  splendid  in  color,  moulded  into  relief  pictures  covering 
large  surfaces,  and  used  more  generally  on  exterior  walls  than  for 
interior  decoration,  are  the  oldest  examples  of  the  skill  of  the 
Persians  in  a  branch  of  ceramic  art  in  which  they  have  always  ex- 
celled down  to  our  own  day. 

LYCIAN  ARCHITECTURE.  The  architecture  of  those  Asiatic 
peoples  which  served  as  intermediaries  between  the  ancient  civili- 
zations of  Egypt  and  Assyria  on  the  one  hand  and  of  the  Greek 
on  the  other  need  occupy  us  only  a  moment  in  passing.  None  of 
them  developed  a  complete  and  independent  style  or  produced 
monuments  of  the  first  rank.  Those  chiefly  concerned  in  the 
transmission  of  ideas  were  the  Cypriotes,  Phoenicians,  and 
Lycians.  The  part  played  by  other  Asiatic  nations  is  too  slight 
to  be  considered  here.  From  Cyprus  the  Greeks  could  have 
learned  little  beyond  a  few  elementary  notions  regarding  sculpture 
and  pottery,  although  it  is  claimed  by  some  that  the  volute-form  in 
Ionic  architecture  was  originally  derived  from  patterns  on  Cy- 
priote pottery  and  from  certain  Cypriote  steles,  where  it  appears 
as  a  modified  lotus  motive.  The  Pha-nicians  were  the  world's 
traders  from  a  very  early  age  down  to  the  Persian  conquest. 
They  not  only  distributed  through  the  Mediterranean  lands  the 
manufactures  of  Egypt  and  Assyria,  but  also  counterfeited  them 
and  adopted  their  forms  in  decorating  their  own  wares.  But  they 
have  bequeathed  us  not  a  single  architectural  ruin  of  importance, 
either  of  temple  or  palace,  nor  are  the  few  tombs  still  extant  of 
sufficient  artistic  interest  to  deserve  even  brief  mention  in  a  work 
of  this  scope. 

In  Lycia,  however,  there  arose  a  system  of  tomb-design  which 


PERSIAN,    LYCIAN,   AND   JEWISH   ARCHITECTURE.      39 

came  near  creating  a  new  architectural  style,  and  which  doubtless 
influenced  both  Persia  and  the  Ionian  colonies.  The  tombs  were 
mostly  cut  in  the  rock,  though  a  few  are  free-standing  monolithic 
monuments,  resembling  sarcophagi  or  small  shrines  mounted  on  a 
high  base  or  pedestal. 

In  all  of  these  tombs  we  recognize  a  manifest  copying  in  stone 
of  framed  wooden  structures.  The  walls  are  panelled,  or  imitate 
open  structures  framed  of  squared  timbers.  The  roofs  are  often 
gabled,  sometimes  in  the  form  of  a  pointed  arch;  they  generally 
show  a  banded  architrave,  dentils,  and  a  raking  cornice,  or  else  an 
imitation  of  broadly  projecting  eaves  with  small  round  rafters. 
There  are  several  with  porches  of  Ionic  columns;  of  these,  some 
are  of  late  date  and  evidently  copied  from  Asiatic  Greek  models. 
Others,  and  notably  one  at  Telmissus,  seem  to  be  examples  of  a 
primitive  Ionic,  and  may  indeed  have  been  early  steps  in  the  de- 
velopment of  that  splendid  style  which  the  Ionic  Greeks,  both  in 
Asia  Minor  and  in  Attica,  carried  to  such  perfection. 

JEWISH  ARCHITECTURE.  The  Hebrews  borrowed  from 
the  art  of  every  people  with  whom  they  had  relations,  so  that  we 
encounter  in  the  few  extant  remains  of  their  architecture  Egyp- 
tian, Assyrian,  Phoenician,  Greek,  Roman,  and  Syro-Byzantine 
features,  but  nothing  like  an  independent  national  style.  Among 
the  most  interesting  of  these  remains  are  tombs  of  various  periods, 
principally  occurring  in  the  valleys  near  Jerusalem,  and  errone- 
ously ascribed  by  popular  tradition  to  the  judges,  prophets,  and 
kings  of  Israel.  Some  of  them  are  structural,  some  cut  in  the 
rock;  the  former  (tomb  of  Absalom,  of  Zechariah)  decorated  with 
Doric  and  Ionic  engaged  orders,  were  once  supposed  to  be  primi- 
tive types  of  these  orders  and  of  great  antiquity.  They  are  now 
recognized  to  be  debased  imitations  of  late  Greek  work  of  the 
third  or  second  century  n.c.  They  have  Egyptian  cavetto  cor- 
nices and  pyramidal  roofs,  like  many  Asiatic  tombs.  The  open- 
ings of  the  rock-cut  tombs  have  frames  or  pediments  carved  with 
rich  surface  ornament  showing  a  similar  mixture  of  types— Ro- 


4O  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

man  triglyphs  and  garlands,  Syrian-Greek  acanthus  leaves,  con- 
ventional foliage  of  Byzantine  character,  and  naturalistic  carvings 
of  grapes  and  local  plant  life.  The  carved  arches  of  two  of  the 
ancient  city  gates  (one  the  so-called  Golden  Gate)  in  Jerusalem 
display  rich  acanthus  foliage  somewhat  like  that  of  the  tombs,  but 
more  vigorous  and  artistic.  If  of  the  time  of  Herod  or  even  of 
Constantine,  as  claimed  by  some,  they  would  indicate  that  Greek 
artists  in  Syria  created  the  prototypes  of  Byzantine  ornament. 
They  are  more  probably,  however,  Byzantine  restorations  of 
the  6th  century  A.D. 

The  one  great  achievement  of  Jewish  architecture  was  the  na- 
tional Temple  of  Jehovah,  represented  by  three  successive  edi- 
fices on  Mount  Moriah,  the  site  of  the  present  so-called  "  Mosque 
of  Omar."  The  first,  built  by  Solomon  (1012  B.C.)  appears  from 
the  Biblical  description*  to  have  combined  Egyptian  conceptions 
(successive  courts,  lofty  entrance-pylons,  the  Sanctuary  and  the 
sekos  or  "Holy  of  Holies")  with  Phoenician  and  Assyrian  details 
and  workmanship  (cedar  wood-work,  empaistic  decoration  or 
overlaying  with  repousse  metal  work,  the  isolated  brazen  columns 
Jachin  and  Boaz).  The  whole  stood  on  a  mighty  platform  built 
up  with  stupendous  masonry  and  vaulted  chambers  from  the 
valley  surrounding  the  rock  on  three  sides.  This  precinct  was 
nearly  doubled  in  size  by  Herod  (18  B.C.)  who  extended  it  south- 
ward by  a  terrace-\vall  of  still  more  colossal  masonry.  Some  of 
the  stones  are  twenty-two  feet  long;  one  reaches  the  prodigious 
length  of  forty  feet.  The  "  Wall  of  Lamentations  "  is  a  part  of 
this  terrace,  upon  which  stood  the  Temple  on  a  raised  platform. 
As  rebuilt  by  Herod,  the  Temple  reproduced  in  part  the  antique 
design,  and  retained  the  porch  of  Solomon  along  the  east  side; 
but  the  whole  was  superbly  reconstructed  in  white  marble  with 
abundance  of  gilding.  Defended  by  the  Castle  of  Antonia  on  the 
northwest,  and  embellished  with  a  new  and  imposing  triple  colon- 
nade on  the  south,  the  whole  edifice,  a  conglomerate  of  Egyptian, 
*  i  Kings  vi.-vii.;  2  Chronicles  iii.-iv. 


PERSIAN,   LYCIAN,   AND  JEWISH   ARCHITECTURE.      41 

Assyrian,  and  Roman  conceptions  and  forms,  was  one  of  the  most 
singular  and  yet  magnificent  creations  of  ancient  art. 

The  temple  of  Zerubbabel  (515  B.C.),  intermediate  between 
those  above  described,  was  probably  less  a  re-edification  of  the 
first,  than  a  new  design.  While  based  on  the  scheme  of  the  first 
temple,  it  appears  to  have  followed  more  closely  the  pattern  de- 
scribed in  the  vision  of  Ezekiel  (chapters  xl.-xlii.).  It  was  far 
inferior  to  its  predecessor  in  splendor  and  costliness.  No  ves- 
tiges of  it  remain. 

MONUMENTS.  PERSIAN:  at  Murghab,  the  tomb  of  Cyrus, 
known  as  Gabre-Madre-Soleiman — a  gabled  structure  on  a  seven- 
stepped  pyramidal  basement  (525  B.C.)-  At  Persepolis  the  palace 
of  Darius  (521  B.C.)  ;  the  Propylaea  of  Xerxes,  his  palace  and  his 
harem  (?)  or  throne-hall  (480  B.C.),  one  of  the  most  imposing 
architectural  groups  in  the  world.  At  various  points,  tower-like 
tombs,  supposed  erroneously  by  Fergusson  to  have  been  fire  altars. 
At  Naksh-i-Roustam,  the  tomb  of  Darius,  cut  in  the  rock.  Other 
tombs  near  by  at  Persepolis  proper  and  at  Pasargada?.  At  the 
latter  place  remains  of  the  palace  of  Cyrus.  At  Susa  the  palace  of 
Xerxes  and  Artaxerxes  (480-405  B.C.). 

LYCIAN  :  the  principal  Lycian  monuments  are  found  in  Myra, 
Antiphellus,  and  Telmissus.  Some  of  the  monolithic  tombs  have 
been  removed  to  the  British  and  other  European  museums. 

JEWISH  :  the  temples  have  been  mentioned  above.  The  palace 
of  Solomon.  The  rock-cut  monolithic  tomb  of  Siloam.  So-called 
tombs  of  Absalom  and  Zechariah,  structural ;  probably  of  Herod's 
time  or  later.  Rock-cut  tombs  of  the  Kings;  of  the  Prophets,  etc. 
City  gates  (Herodian  or  early  Christian  period). 


CHAPTER    VI. 

GREEK   ARCHITECTURE. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED:  As  before,  Reber.  Also  Anderson 
and  Spiers,  Architecture  0}  Greece  and  Rome.  Baumeister, 
Denkmaler  der  klassischen  Alterthums.  Botticher,  Tcktonik  dcr 
Hellenen.  Chipiez,  Histoire  critique  dcs  ordres  grecs.  Curtius, 
Adler  and  Treu,  Die  Ausgrabungen  zu  Olympia.  Durm,  Ant-ike 
Baukunst  (in  Handbuch  d.  Arch).  Frazer,  Pausanias*  Descrip- 
tion of  Greece.  Hitorff,  L1  architecture  polychrome  cliez  les  Grecs. 
Krell,  Geschichte  des  dorischen  Stils.  Marquand,  Greek  A rchitec- 
ture.  Michaelis,  Der  Parthenon.  Penrose,  An  Investigation,  etc., 
o/  Athenian  Architecture.  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  History  of  Art  in 
Primitive  Greece;  La  Grece  de  I'JSpopee;  La  Grece  archaique. 
Schliemann,  Myccnce;  Ilios.  Schuchardt,  Schlicmann's  Excava- 
tions. Stuart  and  Revett,  Antiquities  of  Athens.  Tarbell,  His- 
tory of  Greek  Art.  Texier,  L'Asie  Mineure.  Wilkins,  Antiquities 
of  Magna  Grcccia. 

GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS.  Greek  art  marks  the  begin- 
ning of  European  civilization.  The  Hellenic  race  gathered  up 
influences  and  suggestions  from  both  Asia  and  Africa  and  fused 
them  with  others,  whose  sources  are  unknown,  into  an  art  in- 
tensely national  and  original,  which  was  to  influence  the  arts  of 
many  races  and  nations  long  centuries  after  the  decay  of  the  Hel- 
lenic states.  The  Greek  mind,  compared  with  the  Egyptian  or 
Assyrian,  was  more  highly  intellectual,  more  logical,  more  sym- 
metrical, and  above  all  more  inquiring  and  analytic.  Living  no- 
where remote  from  the  sea,  the  Greeks  became  sailors,  mer- 
chants, and  colonizers.  The  Ionian  kinsmen  of  the  European 
Greeks,  speaking  a  dialect  of  the  same  language,  populated  the 
coasts  of  Asia  Minor  and  many  of  the  islands,  so  that  through 
them  the  Greeks  were  open  to  the  influences  of  the  Assyrian, 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE. 


43 


Phoenician,  Persian,  and  Lycian  civilizations.  In  Cyprus  they 
encountered  Egyptian  influences,  and  finally,  under  Psammet- 
ichus,  they  established  in  Egypt  itself  the  Greek  city  of  Naukratis. 
They  were  thus  by  geographical  situation,  by  character,  and  by 
circumstances,  peculiarly  fitted  to  receive,  develop,  and  transmit 
the  mingled  influences  of  the  East  and  the  South. 

PREHISTORIC  MONUMENTS.  Authentic  Greek  history  be- 
gins with  the  first  Olympiad,  776  B.C.  The  history  of  the  lay 
period  of  primitive  and  developing  culture  preceding  that  date 
was  wholly  unknown,  otherwise  than  through  legends  and  the 
Homeric  poems,  until  the 
researches  of  Schliemann 
and  his  successors,  and  in 
still  more  recent  years  the 
Cretan  discoveries  of  Evans, 
uncovered  the  remains  of 
the  prehistoric  cities  of 
Troy,  in  Asia  Minor,  My- 
cenas  and  Tiryns,  in  Greece, 
and  of  Cnossus  in  Crete, 
and  revealed  the  existence 
of  an  ancient  culture  ex- 
tending back  over  2000  years 
B.C.,  already  in  its  decline  at 
the  time  of  the  Homeric 

wars.  This  civilization  has  been  called  the  Mycemcan,  but 
is  now  more  properly  termed  the  Aegean  or  Mediterranean 
culture.  It  belongs  to  the  bronze  age,  and  reached  its  culmina- 
tion during  the  time  of  the  XIX  and  XX  dynasties  in  Egypt,  about 
1500-1300  B.C.  Its  long  decline  began  with  the  introduction  of 
iron  into  the  Mediterranean  countries,  and  it  seems  to  have  been 
overthrown  or  submerged  by  the  Dorian  migration  of  the  end  of 
the  1 2th  century  B.C.  It  borrowed  much  from  Egypt,  with  which 
the  primitive  Greeks  of  the  Aegean  countries  and  islands  main- 


FIG.    22. — LION    GATE    AT    MYCEN*. 


44  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

tained  an  active  commerce;  but  it  is  believed  to  have  been  largely 
an  independent  civilization,  for  it  displays  a  purely  Western 
vivacity  and  originality.  The  swords,  gold  jewels,  carved  gems 
("  island  stones  "),  bronzes  and  pottery,  as  well  as  the  architectural 
remains,  display  these  qualities  in  a  marked  degree. 

"  PREHISTORIC  "  ARCHITECTURE.  A  remarkable  feature  of  the 
architecture  of  the  Mycenaean  or  Aegean  age  is  the  complete 
absence  of  temples.  Fortifications,  houses,  palaces,  and  tombs 
make  up  the  ruins  thus  far  discovered.  The  primitive  house 
consisted  of  a  hall  or  megaron  with  four  columns  about  the 
central  hearth  (whence,  no  doubt,  the  atrium  and  peristyle  of 
Roman  houses,  through  their  Greek  intermediary  prototypes) 
and  a  porch  or  aithonsa,  with  or  without  columns  in  ant  is,  open- 
ing directly  into  the  megaron,  or  indirectly  through  an  ante-room 
called  the  prodomos.  Here  we  have  the  prototypes  of  the  Greek 
temple  in  ant  is,  with  its  naos  having  interior  columns,  whether 
roofed  over  or  hypcethral  (see  pp.  55,  56).  The  use  of  timber 
for  certain  of  the  structural  details  led  in  time  to  many  of  the 
forms  later  developed  in  stone  in  the  entablature  of  the  Doric 
order.  But  it  is  hard  to  discover,  as  Dorpfeld  would  have  it,  in 
the  slender  Mycenaean  columns  with  their  inverted  taper,  the  pro- 
totype of  the  massive  Doric  column  with  its  upward  taper.  The 
Mycenaean  column  was  apparently  derived  from  wooden  models, 
the  sturdy  Doric  column  from  stone  or  rubble  piers  (see  p.  51). 

The  gynecaiim,  or  women's  apartments,  the  men's  apartments, 
and  the  bath  were  in  these  ancient  palaces  grouped  in  varying 
relations  about  the  megaron:  their  plan,  purpose,  and  arrange- 
ment are  clearly  revealed  in  the  ruins  of  Tiryns,  where  they  are 
more  complete  and  perfect  than  either  at  Troy  or  Mycena-.* 

FORTIFICATIONS  AND  WALLS.  The  most  imposing  remains 
of  Aegean  architecture  are  the  acropolis  fortifications  and  city 
walls  of  Mycenae  and  Tiryns.  At  tin- latter  place  the  walls  of 

*  A  tvpiral  Mvceii;ean  house  \\-a-;  uncovered  at  Xiller  in  C  liald;ea 
1>y  the  expedition  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE.  45 

huge  stones,  piled  without  cement,  contain  passages  covered  by 
stones  successively  corbelled  out  until  they  meet  overhead.  At 
Mycenae  the  city  wall  is  pierced  by  the  remarkable  Lion  Gate 
(Fig.  22),  consisting  of  two  jambs  and  a  huge  lintel,  over  which 
the  weight  is  relieved  by  a  triangular  opening.  This  is  filled  with 
a  sculptured  group,  now  much  defaced,  representing  two  rampant 
lions  flanking  a  downward-tapering  column.  This  symbolic 
group  has  relations  with  Hittite  and  Phrygian  sculptures,  and 
with  the  symbolism  of  the  worship  of  Rhea  Cybele.  The  masonry 
of  this  wall  is  carefully  dressed  but  not  regularly  coursed.  Other 
primitive  walls  and  gates  showing  openings  and  embryonic 
arches  of  various  forms,  are  found  widely  scattered,  at  Samos  and 
Delos,  at  Phigaleia,  Thoricus, 
Argos  and  many  other  points. 
The  very  earliest  are  hardly  more 
than  random  piles  of  rough  stone. 
Those  which  may  fairly  claim 
notice  for  their  artistic  masonry 
are  of  a  later  date  and  of  three  FIG-  23.— POLYGONAL  MASONRY. 
kinds:  the  coursed,  the  polyg- 
onal, and  the  uncoursed  or  Cyclopean,  so  called  from  the 
tradition  that  they  were  built  by  the  Cyclopes.  The  polygonal 
walls  were  composed  of  large,  irregular  polygonal  blocks  care- 
fully fitted  together  and  dressed  to  a  fairly  smooth  face,  as  at 
Mycenae  (Fig.  23).  The  Cyclopean  masonry,  of  huge  irregular 
stones  with  smaller  pieces  to  wedge  the  interstices,  is  illustrated 
by  the  walls  of  Tiryns.  All  three  kinds  were  used  contemporane- 
ously, though  in  the  course  of  time  the  regular  coursed  masonry 
finally  superseded  the  polygonal. 

THOLOS  OF  ATREUS.  All  these  structures  present,  however, 
only  the  rudiments  of  architectural  art.  The  so-called  Tholos  (or 
Treasury)  of  Atreus,  at  Mycen.v,  on  the  other  hand,  shows  the 
germs  of  truly  artistic  design  (Fig.  24).  It  is  in  reality  a  tomb, 
and  is  one  of  a  large  class  of  prehistoric  tombs  found  in  almost 


46 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


every  part  of  the  globe,  consisting  of  a  circular  stone-walled  and 
stone-roofed  chamber  buried  under  a  tumulus  of  earth.     This  one 

is  a  beehive-shaped  con- 
struction of  horizontal 
courses  of  masonry,  with  a 
stone-walled  passage,  the 
dromos,  leading  to  the 
entrance  door.  Though 
internally  of  domical  form, 
its  construction  with  hori- 
zontal beds  in  the  masonry 
proves  that  the  idea  of  the 
true  dome  with  the  beds 
of  each  course  pitched  at 
an  angle  always  normal  to 
the  curve  of  the  vault,  was 
not  yet  grasped.  A  small 
sepulchral  chamber  opens 
from  the  great  one,  by  a 
door  with  the  customary 
relieving  triangle  over  it. 
Traces  of  a  metal  lining  have  been  found 
on  the  inner  surface  of  the  dome  and  on 
the  jambs  of  the  entrance-door.  This  en- 
trance is  the  most  artistic  and  elaborate 
part  of  the  edifice  (Fig.  25).  The  main 
opening  is  enclosed  in  a  three-banded  frame, 
and  was  once  flanked  by  half  columns  which 
tapered  downward  as  in  the  sculptured 
column  over  the  Lion  Gate.  Shafts,  bases, 
and  capitals  were  covered  with  zig-zag  bands 
or  chevrons  of  fine  spirals.  This  well-studied 
decoration,  the  banded  jambs,  and  the  curi- 
ously inverted  columns  (of  which  several  other  examples 


FIG.  24. THOLOS  OP  ATREUS. 

SECTION. 


H5.  25. THOLOS  OP 

ATRP.US.   DOORWAY. 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE.  47 

exist  in  or  near  Mycenae),  all  point  to  a  fairly  developed  art,  de- 
rived partly  from  Egyptian  and  partly  from  local  or  possibly 
Asiatic  sources.  That  Egyptian  influences  had  affected  this 
early  art  is  further  proved  by  a  fragment  of  carved  and  painted 
ornament  on  an  alabaster  ceiling  in  Orchomenos,  imitating  with 
remarkable  closeness  certain  ceiling  decorations  in  Egyptian 
tombs.  This  fragment  was  found  in  a  "beehive"  tomb  analo- 
gous to  that  of  Mycenae.* 

Few  other  details  of  the  Aegean  architecture  have  been  pre- 
served. Certain  alabaster  fragments  display  a  peculiar  orna- 
ment like  a  diglyph  flanked  by  half-rosettes  encircled  by  a  guil- 
loche.  The  columns  had  well-defined  bases  and  capitals,  but 
show  little  if  any  analogy  to  the  columns  of  later  Greek  art.  Ex- 
cept for  the  ceiling  in  the  Orchomenos  tomb  there  is  little  evi- 
dence of  influences  from  Egyptian  architecture.  This  is  the 
more  notable  as  the  chief  buildings  of  Myceme  and  Tiryns  belong 
to  the  1 3th  and  iath  centuries  B.C.,  the  period  of  Egyptian  great- 
ness under  the  second  Theban  monarchy,  and  it  argues  for  the 
independent  development  of  this  art. 

Until  further  investigations  of  the  remarkable  Cretan  art  re- 
vealed in  the  ruins  of  the  Palace  of  Minos  at  Cnossus  shall  have 
made  known  something  more  of  the  architectural  forms  and 
decorative  art  of  that  early  culture  than  we  now  know,  it  will  be 
impossible  to  determine  how  far,  if  at  all,  the  architecture  of 
Mycena.',  Tiryns  and  Troy  was  dependent  upon  or  inspired  from 
that  of  Crete. 

With  the  Dorian  migration  (dr.  noo  B.C.)  this  chapter  of 
Greek  architecture  comes  to  its  close.  The  artistic  revival  of  the 
eighth  century  under  the  Ionian  Greeks  in  Rhodes  and  Melos 

*  The  columns  and  other  fragments  of  the  doorway  of  the  Tholos 
of  Atreus,  long  lost  in  England,  were  in  1904  recovered  and  set  up 
in  the  British  Museum,  under  the  direction  of  R.  Phone  Spiers. 
F.R.I.B.A.,  to  whom  I  am  indebted  for  the  restoration  reproduced 
in  Figure  25. 


48  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

produced  no  architecture  that  has  come  down  to  us.  There  is  a 
nearly  complete  sundering  between  the  Mycenaean  architecture 
and  the  historic  architecture  of  Greece.  The  end  of  the  one  and 
beginnings  of  the  other  are  alike  shrouded  in  uncertainty. 

HISTORIC  MONUMENTS:  THE  ORDERS.  It  was  the  Dorians 
and  lonians  who  developed  the  architecture  of  classic  Greece. 
This  fact  is  perpetuated  in  the  traditional  names,  Doric  and  Ionic, 
given  to  the  two  systems  of  columnar  design  which  formed  the 
most  striking  feature  of  that  architecture.  While  in  Egypt  the 
column  was  used  almost  exclusively  as  an  internal  support  and 
decoration,  in  Greece  it  was  chiefly  employed  to  produce  an  im- 
posing exterior  effect.  It  was  the  most  important  element  in  the 
temple  architecture  of  the  Greeks,  and  an  almost  indispensable 
adornment  of  their  gateways,  public  squares,  and  temple  enclos- 
ures. To  the  column  the  two  races  named  above  gave  each  a 
special  and  radically  distinct  development,  and  it  was  not  until 
the  Periclean  age  that  the  two  forms  came  to  be  used  in  conjunc- 
tion, even  by  the  mixed  Doric-Ionic  people  of  Attica.  Each  of 
the  two  types  had  its  own  special  shaft,  capital,  entablature, 
mouldings,  and  ornaments,  although  considerable  variation  was 
allowed  in  the  proportions  and  minor  details.  The  general  type, 
however,  remained  substantially  unchanged  from  first  to  last. 
The  earliest  examples  known  to  us  of  either  order  show  it  com- 
plete in  all  its  parts;  its  later  development  being  restricted  to  the 
refining  and  perfecting  of  its  proportions  and  details.  The  prob- 
able origin  of  these  orders  will  be  separately  considered  later  on. 

THE  DORIC.  The  column  of  the  Doric  order  (Figs.  26,  27) 
consists  of  a  tapering  shaft  rising  directly  from  the  stylobate  or 
platform  and  surmounted  by  a  capital  of  great  simplicity  and 
beauty.  The  shaft  is  fluted  with  sixteen  to  twenty  shallow  chan- 
nellings  of  segmental  or  elliptical  section,  meeting  in  sharp  edges 
or  arrises.  The  capital  is  made  up  of  a  circular  cushion  or 
echinus  adorned  with  fine  grooves  called  annuhc,  and  a  plain 
square  abacus  or  cap.  Upon  this  rests  a  plain  architrave  or 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE. 


49 


epistyle,  with  a  narrow  fillet,  the  la-nia,  running  along  its  upper 
edge.  The  frieze  above  it  is  divided  into  square  panels,  called 
the  metopes,  separated  by  vertical  triglyplis  having  each  two  ver- 
tical grooves  and  chamfered  edges.  There  is  a  triglyph  over  each 
column  and  one  over  each  intercolumniation,  or  two  in  rare  in- 
stances where  the  columns  are  widely  spaced.  The  cornice  con- 
sists of  a  broadly  projecting  corona 
resting  on  a  bed-mould  of  one  or  two 
simple  mouldings.  Its  under  sur- 
face, called  the  soffit,  is  adorned 
with  mulules,  square,  flat  projections 
having  each  eighteen  gnltce  depend- 
ing from  its  under  side.  Two  or 
three  small  mouldings  run  along 
the  upper  edge  of  the  corona,  which 
has  in  addition,  over  each  slope  of 
the  gable,  a  gutter-moulding  or  cy- 
malium.  The  cornices  along  the 
horizontal  edges  of  the  roof  have 
instead  of  the  cymatium  a  row  of 
antefixa,  ornaments  of  terra-cotta 
or  marble,  placed  opposite  the  foot 
of  each  tile-ridge  of  the  roofing. 
The  enclosed  triangular  field  of  the 
gable,  called  the  tympanum,  was  in 
the  larger  monuments  adorned  with 
sculptured  groups  resting  on  the  shelf  formed  by  the  horizontal 
cornice  below.  Carved  ornaments  called  acroteria  commonly 
embellished  the  three  angles  of  the  gable  or  pediment. 

POLYCHROMY.  It  has  been  fully  proved,  after  a  century  of 
debate,  that  all  this  elaborate  system  of  parts,  severe  and  dignified 

*  In  this  and  other  cuts  of  the  orders,  only  the  upper  and  lower 
parts  of  the  shaft  are  shown,  the  intervening  and  greater  part  of  the 
shaft  being  omitted,  to  save  space. 


FIG.    26. — GREEK    DORIC   ORDER. 

a,  Crepidoma,  or  Stylobate; 
p.  Column;  c.  Architrave;  d, 
Tifnia;  e.  Frieze;  f^  Horizontal 
cornice:  g,  Raking  cornice;  h. 
Tympanum  of  pediment;  k,  Me- 
tope* 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


in  their  simplicity  of  form,  received  a  rich  decoration  of  color. 
While  the  precise  shades  and  tones  employed  cannot  be  predi- 
cated with  certainty,  it  is  well  established  that  the  triglyphs  were 
painted  blue  and  the  metopes  red,  and  that  all  the  mouldings  were 
decorated  with  leaf-ornaments,  "  eggs-and-darts,"  and  frets,  in 
red,  green,  blue,  and  gold.  The  walls  and  columns  were  also 
colored,  probably  with  pale  tints  of  yellow  or  buff,  to  reduce  the 
glare  of  the  fresh  marble  or  the  whiteness  of  the  fine  stucco  with 
which  the  surfaces  of  maso.iry  of  coarser  stone  were  primed.  In 
the  clear  Greek  atmosphere  and  outlined  against  the  brilliant  sky, 
the  Greek  temple  must  have  presented  an  aspect  of  rich,  spark- 
ling gayety. 

ORIGIN  OF  THE  ORDER.  It  is  generally  believed  that  the 
details  of  the  Doric  frieze  and  cornice  were  reminiscences  of  a 
primitive  wood  construction,  going  back  perhaps  to  Mycemean 

prototypes.  The  triglyph 
suggests  the  chamfered 
ends  of  cross-beams  made 
up  of  three  planks  each; 
the  mutules,  the  sheath- 
ing of  the  eaves;  and  the 
guttie,  the  heads  of  the 
spikes  or  trenails  by 
which  the  sheathing  was 
secured.  It  is  known 
that  in  early  astylar 
temples  the  metopes 

Fir,.     27. DORIC    ORDER    OP    THB    PARTHENON'.  \VCrC      left     O])Cn       like      tllC 

spaces  between   the  ends 

of  ceiling-rafters.  In  the  earlier  peripteral  temples,  as  at 
Selinus,  the  triglyph-frie/.e  is  retained  around  the  cella-wall 
under  the  ceiling  of  the  colonnade,  where  it  has  no  func- 
tional significance,  as  a  survival  from  times  antedating  the 
adoption  of  the  colonnade,  when  the  tradition  of  a  wooden 


.    .  GREEK   ARCHITECTURE.  51 

roof-construction  showing  externally  had  not  yet  been  for- 
gotten. 

A  similar  wooden  origin  for  the  Doric  column  has  been  advo- 
cated by  some,  who  point  to  the  assertion  of  Pausanias  that  in  the 
Doric  Heraion  at  Olympia  the  original  wooden  columns  had  with 
one  exception  been  replaced  by  stone  columns  as  fast  as  they  de- 
cayed. (See  page  63.)  This,  however,  only  proves  that  wooden 
columns  were  sometimes  used  in  early  buildings,  not  that  the 
Doric  column  was  derived  from  them.  Dcirpfeld,  a  high  author- 
ity, would  seek  its  origin  in  the  Mycenaean  column  (see  ante,  p. 
44).  Others  would  derive  it  from  the  Egyptian  columns  of  Beni 
Hassan  (p.  12),  which  it  certainly  resembles.  But  it  is  not  likely 
that  the  Greeks,  in  selecting  models  for  imitation,  would  have 
passed  over  the  splendors  of  Karnak  and  Luxor  to  copy  these  in- 
conspicuous tombs  perched  high  up  on  the  cliffs  of  the  Nile.  It 
would  seem  that  they  invented  this  form  independently,  develop- 
ing it  in  buildings  which  have  perished;  unless,  indeed,  they 
brought  the  idea  with  them  from  their  primitive  Aryan  home  in 
Asia. 

THE  IONIC  ORDER  was  characterized  by  greater  slenderness 
of  proportion  and  elegance  of  detail  than  the  Doric,  and  depended 
more  on  carving  than  on  color  for  the  decoration  of  its  members 
(Fig.  28).  It  was  adopted  in  the  fifth  century  B.C.  by  the  people 
of  Attica,  and  used  both  for  civic  and  religious  buildings,  some- 
times alone  and  sometimes  in  conjunction  with  the  Doric.  The 
column  was  from  eight  to  ten  diameters  in  height,  against  four 
and  one-third  to  seven  for  the  Doric.  It  stood  on  a  base  which 
was  usually  composed  of  two  tori  (see  p.  25  for  definition)  sepa- 
rated by  a  scotia  (a  concave  moulding  of  semicircular  or  semi- 
elliptical  profile),  and  was  sometimes  provided  also  with  a  square 
flat  base-block,  the  plinth.  There  was  much  variety  in  the  pro- 
portions and  details  of  these  mouldings,  which  were  often  en- 
riched by  flutings  or  carved  guilloches.  The  tall  shaft  bore 
twenty-four  deep  narrow  flutings  separated  by  narrow  fillets. 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


The  capital  was  the  most  peculiar  feature  of  the  order.  It 
consisted  of  a  bead  or  astragal  and  echinus,  over  which  was  a 
horizontal  band  ending  on  either  side  in  a  scroll  or  volute,  the 
sides  of  which  presented  the  aspect  shown  in  Fig.  29.  A  thin 
moulded  abacus  was  interposed  between  this  member  and  the 
architrave. 

The  Ionic  capital  was  marked  by  two  awkward  features  which 
all  its  richness  could  not  conceal.  One 
was  the  protrusion  of  the  echinus  be- 
yond the  face  of  the  band  above'  it,  the 
other  was  the  disparity  between  the 
side  and  front  views  of  the  capital, 
especially  noticeable  at  the  corners  of  a 
colonnade.  To  obviate  this,  various 
contrivances  were  tried,  none  wholly 
successful.  Ordinarily  the  two  adjacent 
exterior  sides  of  the  corner  capital  were 
treated  alike,  the  scrolls  at  their  meet- 
ing being  bent  out  at  an  angle  of 
45°,  while  the  two  inner  faces  simply 
intersected,  cutting  each  other  in  halves. 

The  entablature  comprised  an  architrave  of  two  or  three  flat 
bands  crowned  by  fine  mouldings;  an  uninterrupted  frieze,  fre- 
quently sculptured  in  relief;  and  a  simple  cornice  of  great  beauty. 
In  addition  to  the  ordinary  bed-mouldings  there  was  in  most 
examples  a  row  of  narrow  blocks  or  dentils  under  the  corona, 
which  was  itself  crowned  by  a  high  cymatium  of  extremely  grace- 
ful profile,  carved  with  the  rich  "  honeysuckle"  (antlieniion)  orna- 
ment. All  the  mouldings  were  carved  with  the  "egg-and-dart," 
heart-leaf  and  anthemion  ornaments,  so  designed  as  to  recall  by 
their  outline  the  profile  of  the  moulding  itself.  The  details  of  this 
order  were  treated  with  much  more  freedom  and  variety  than 
those  of  the  Doric.  The  pediments  of  Ionic  buildings  were  rarely 
or  never  adorned  with  groups  of  sculpture.  The  volutes  and 


FIG.    28. GREEK    IONIC    OR- 
DER.     (MILETUS.) 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE 


53 


echinus  of  the  capital,  the  fluting  of  the  shaft,  the  use  of  a  moulded 
circular  base,  and  in  the  cornice  the  high  corona  and  cymatium, 
these  were  constant  elements  in  every  Ionic  order,  but  all  other 
details  varied  widely  in  the  different  examples. 

ORIGIN  OF  THE  IONIC  ORDER.  The  origin  of  the  Ionic  order 
has  given  rise  to  almost  as  much  controversy  as  that  of  the  Doric. 
Its  different  elements  were  apparently  derived  from  various 
sources.  The  Lycian  tombs  may 
have  contributed  the  denticular  cor- 
nice and  perhaps  also  the  general 
form  of  the  column  and  capital.  The 
banded  architrave  is  found  in  My- 
cenae as  well  as  in  Lycian  and  Per- 
sian work,  and  is  plainly  derived  from 
superposed  wooden  lintels. 

Various  archaic  capitals  found  in 
Ionic  Asia  Minor  and  Greece  display 
separately  the  component  elements 
of  the  Ionic  capital.  The  volutes  appear  to  have  originated 
primarily  in  branching  spirals  springing  from  the  shaft,  as  in 
many  Assyrian  and  Cypriote  fmials  and  stele-heads;  their  union 
by  a  horizontal  band,  forming  a  sort  of  abacus,  was  a  late  modi- 
fication. The  volute  or  scroll  itself  as  an  independent  decorative 
motive  may  have  originated  in  successive  variations  of  Egyptian 
lotus-patterns.*  But  the  combination  of  these  diverse  elements 
and  their  development  into  the  final  form  of  the  order  was  the 
work  of  the  Ionian  Greeks,  and  it  was  in  the  Ionian  provinces 
of  Asia  Minor  that  the  most  splendid  examples  of  its  use  are  to 
be  found  (Halicarnassus,  Miletus,  Priene,  Kphesus),  while  the 
most  graceful  and  perfect  are  those  of  Doric-Ionic  Attica. 

THE  CORINTHIAN  ORDER.     This  was  a  late  outgrowth  of  the 
Ionic  rather  than  a  new  order,  and  up  to  the  time  of  the  Roman 
conquest  was  only  used  for  monuments  of  small  size  (see  Fig.  38). 
*  As  contended  by  W.  H.  (loodyear  in  his  Grammar  of  the  Lotus. 


FIG.     29. SIDE   VIEW    OP    IONIC 

CAPITAL. 


54 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


Its  entablature  in  pure  Greek  examples  was  identical  with  the 
Ionic;  the  shaft  and  base  were  only  slightly  changed  in  propor- 
tion and  detail.  The  capital,  however,  was  a  new  departure, 
consisting  in  the  best  examples  of  a  high  bell-shaped  core 
surrounded  by  one  or  two  rows  of 
acanthus  leaves,  above  which  were 
pairs  of  branching  scrolls  meeting  at 
the  corners  in  spiral  volutes.  These 
served  to  support  the  angles  of  a 
moulded  abacus  with  concave  sides 
(Fig.  30).  One  example,  from  the 
Tower  of  the  Winds  (the  clepsydra  of 
Andronicus  Cyrrhestes)  at  Athens,  has 
only  smooth  pointed  palm-leaves  and 
no  scrolls,  above  a  single  row  of 
acanthus  leaves.  Indeed,  the  variety 
and  disparity  among  the  different  ex- 
amples prove  that  we  have  here  only 
the  first  steps  toward  the  evolution  of 
an  independent  order,  which  it  was 
reserved  for  the  Romans  to  fully  de- 
velop. 

GREEK  TEMPLES:  THE  TYPE. 
With  the  orders  as  their  chief  dec- 
orative element  the  Greeks  built  up 
a  splendid  architecture  of  religious 
and  secular  monuments.  Their  noblest  works  were  temples, 
which  they  designed  with  the  utmost  simplicity  of  general 
scheme,  but  carried  out  with  a  mastery  of  proportion  and  detail 
which  has  never  been  surpassed.  Of  moderate  size  in  most 
cases,  they  were  intended  primarily  to  enshrine  the  simulacrum  of 
the  deity,  and  not,  like  Christian  churches,  to  accommodate  great 
throngs  of  worshippers.  Nor  were  they,  on  the  other  hand,  sanc- 
tuaries designed,  like  those  of  Kgypt,  to  exclude  all  but  a  privi- 


FIG.    30. GREEK    CORINTHIAN 

ORDER. 

(From  the  monument  of 
Lysicrates.) 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE. 


55 


leged  few  from  secret  rites  performed  only  by  the  priests  and 
king.  The  statue  of  the  deity  \vas  enshrined  in  a  chamber,  the 
naos  (see  plan,  Fig.  31),  often  of  considerable  size,  and  accessible 
to  the  public  through  a  columnar  porch,  the  pronaos.  A  smaller 
chamber,  the  opisthodomus,  was  sometimes  added  in  the  rear  of 
the  main  sanctuary,  to  serve  as  a  treasury  or  depository  for  votive 
offerings.  Together  these  formed  a  windowless  structure  called 
the  cella,  beyond  which  was  the  rear  porch,  the  posticum  or  epi- 
naos.  This  whole  structure  was  in 
the  larger  temples  surrounded  by 
a  colonnade,  the  peristyle,  which 
formed  the  most  splendid  feature 
of  Greek  architecture.  The  external 
aisle  on  either  side  of  the  cella  was 
called  the  pteroma.  A  single  gabled 
roof  covered  the  entire  building. 

The  Greek  colonnade  was  thus 
an  exterior  feature,  surrounding  the 
solid  cella-wall  instead  of  being  en- 
closed by  it  as  in  Egypt.  The  temple 
was  a  public,  not  a  royal  monument; 
and  its  builders  aimed,  not  as  in 
Egypt  at  size  and  overwhelming 

sombre  majesty,  but  rather  at  sunny  beauty  and  the  highest 
perfection  of  proportion,  execution,  and  detail  (Fig.  34). 

There  were  of  course  many  variations  of  the  general  type 
just  described.  Each  of  these  has  received  a  special  name, 
which  is  given  in  the  following  list  with  explanations  and  is 
illustrated  in  Fig.  31. 

*  There  is  much  uncertainty  in  the  use  of  this  term.  By  many 
writers  it  is  applied  to  the  posticum  or  rear  portico.  In  the  Par- 
thenon itself  the  chamber  marked  «  was  specially  designated  as  the 
Parthenon,  and  the  naos  was  called  the  llecatompedon  or  hun- 
dred-foot hall. 


PIG.     31. TYPES    OF    GREEK 

TEMPLE    PLAN'S. 

a,    In   Ant  is;    b.    Prostyle',  •  c, 
Atiiphiprostylc;      </,      Peripteral 
(The    Parthenon};   N,  A'aas;    O, 
OpisthoJomus;*  S,  Statue. 


$6  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

In  antis;  with  a  porch  having  two  or  more  columns  enclosed 
between  the  projecting  side-walls  of  the  cella.* 

Prostylar  (or  prostyle) ;  with  a  columnar  porch  in  front  and  no 
peristyle. 

Amphiprostylar  (or  -style);  with  columnar  porches  at  both 
ends  but  no  peristyle. f 

Peripteral;  surrounded  by  columns.! 

Pseudo peripteral;  with  false  or  engaged  columns  built  into  the 
walls  of  the  cella,  leaving  no  pteroma.§ 

Dipteral;  with  double  lateral  ranges  of  columns  (see  Fig.  39). 

Pseudo  dipteral,  with  a  single  row  of  columns  on  each  side, 
whose  distance  from  the  wall  is  equal  to  two  intercolumniations 
of  the  front-H 

Tetraslyle,  hexastyle,  octastyle,  decastyle,  etc.;  with  four,  six, 
eight,  or  ten  columns  in  the  end  rows. 

The  Greeks  also  occasionally  erected  circular  temples  or 
shrines,  though  the  majority  of  these  belong  to  the  Macedonian 
age:  e.  g.,  the  Philippeion  at  Olympia. 

CONSTRUCTION.  All  the  temples  known  to  us  are  of  stone, 
though  it  is  evident  from  allusions  in  the  ancient  writers  that 
wood  was  sometimes  used  in  early  times.  (See  p.  63.)  The 
finest  temples,  especially  those  of  Attica,  Olympia,  and  Asia 
Minor,  were  of  marble.  In  Magna  Gnecia,  at  Assos,  and  in  other 
places  where  marble  was  wanting,  limestone,  sandstone,  or  lava 
was  employed  and  finished  with  a  thin,  fine  stucco.  The  roof 
was  almost  invariably  of  wood  and  gabled,  forming  at  the  ends 
pediments  decorated  in  most  cases  with  sculpture.  The  disap- 
pearance of  these  inflammable  and  perishable  roofs  has  given 
rise  to  endless  speculations  as  to  the  lightingof  the  cellas,  which  in 

*  Themis  Temple  at   Rhamnus. 

t  Temple  of  Nike  Apteros,  Athens. 

$  All  the  larger  temples,  also  the  Mausoleum. 

§  Temple  of  Zeus  at  Agrigentum. 

II  Two  of  the  temples  at  Selinus. 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE.  57 

all  known  ruins,  except  one  at  Agrigcntum,  are  destitute  of  win- 
dows. It  has  been  conjectured  that  light  was  admitted  through 
openings  in  the  roof,  and  even  that  the  central  part  of  the  cella 
was  wholly  open  to  the  sky.  Such  an  arrangement  is  termed 
hypccth ral,  from  an  expression  used  in  a  description  by  Vitruvius;* 
but  this  description  corresponds  to  no  known  structure,  and  the 
weight  of  opinion  now  inclines  against  the  use  of  the  hypaethral 
opening,  except  possibly  in  one  or  two  of  the  largest  temples,  in 
which  a  part  of  the  cella  in  front  of  the  statue  may  have  been  thus 
left  open.  But  even  this  partial  hypathros  is  not  substantiated  by 
direct  evidence.  It  hardly  seems  probable  that  the  magnificent 
chryselephantine  statues  of  such  temples  were  ever  thus  left  ex- 
posed to  the  extremes  of  the  climate,  which  are  often  severe  even 
in  Greece.  In  the  model  of  the  Parthenon  designed  by  Ch. 
Chipiez  for  the  Metropolitan  Museum  in  New  York,  a  small 
clerestory  opening  through  the  roof  admits  a  moderate  amount  of 
light  to  the  cella;  but  this  ingenious  device  rests  on  no  positive 
evidence  (see  Frontispiece).  It  seems  on  the  whole  most  prob- 
able that  the  cella  was  lighted  entirely  by  artificial  illumination; 
but  the  controversy  in  its  present  state  is  and  must  be  wholly 
speculative. 

The  wooden  roof  was  covered  with  tiles  of  terra-cotta  or 
marble.  It  was  probably  ceiled  and  panelled  on  the  under  side, 
and  richly  decorated  with  color  and  gold.  The  pteroma  had 
under  the  exterior  roof  a  ceiling  of  stone  or  marble,  deeply 
panelled  between  transverse  architraves. 

The  naos  and  opisthodomus  being  in  the  larger  temples  too 
wide  to  be  spanned  by  single  beams,  were  furnished  with  interior 
columns  to  afford  intermediate  support.  To  avoid  the  extremes 
of  too  great  massiveness  and  excessive  slenderness  in  these  col- 
umns, they  were  built  in  two  stages,  and  advantage  was  taken  of 
this  arrangement,  in  some  cases,  at  least,  to  introduce  lateral 
galleries  into  the  naos. 

*Lib  III.,  Cap.  I. 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


SCULPTURE  AND  CARVING.  All  the  architectural  member- 
ing  was  treated  with  the  greatest  refinement  of  design  and  execu- 
tion, and  the  aid  of  sculpture,  both  in  relief  and  in  the  round,  was 
invoked  to  give  splendor  and  significance  to  the  monument.  The 

statue  of  the  deity  was  the 
focus  of  internal  interest, 
while  externally,  groups 
of  statues  representing 
the  Olympian  deities  or 
the  mythical  exploits  of 
gods,  demigods,  and 
heroes,  adorned  the 
gables.  Relief  carvings 
in  the  friezes  and  metopes 
commemorated  the  fa- 
vorite national  myths. 
In  these  sculptures  we 
have  the  finest  known 
adaptations  of  pure 
sculpture — i.e.,  sculpture 
treated  as  such  and  com- 
plete in  itself — to  an 
architectural  framework. 
The  noblest  examples 
of  this  decorative  sculp- 
ture are  those  of  the 

Parthenon,  consisting  of  figures  in  the  full  round  from  the  pedi- 
ments, groups  in  high  relief  from  the  metopes,  and  the  beautiful 
frieze  of  the  Panathenaic  procession  from  the  cella-wall  under  the 
pteroma  ceiling.  The  greater  part  of  these  splendid  works  are 
now  in  the  British  Museum,  whither  they  were  removed  by  Lord 
Elgin  in  1801.  From  Olympia,  Aegina,  and  Phigaleia,  other 
master-works  of  the  same  kind  have  been  transferred  to  the 
museums  of  Europe.  In  the  Doric  style  there  was  little  carving 


FIG.  32. CARVED  ANTHEMION  ORNAMENT. 

ATHENS. 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE.  59 

other  than  the  sculpture,  the  ornament  being  mainly  polychro- 
matic. Greek  Ionic  and  Corinthian  monuments,  however,  as 
well  as  minor  works  such  as  steles,  altars,  etc.,  were  richly  adorned 
with  carved  mouldings  and  friezes,  festoons,  acroteria,  and  other 
embellishments  executed  with  the  chisel.  The  anthemion  orna- 
ment, a  form  related  to  the  Egyptian  lotus  and  Assyrian  palmette, 
most  frequently  figures  in  these.  It  was  made  into  designs  of 
wonderful  vigor  and  beauty  (Fig.  32). 

DETAIL  AND  EXECUTION.  In  the  handling  and  cutting  of 
stone  the  Greeks  displayed  a  surpassing  skill  and  delicacy. 
While  ordinarily  they  were  content  to  use  stones  of  moderate  size, 
they  never  hesitated  at  any  dimension  necessary  for  proper  effect 
or  solid  construction.  The  lower  drums  of  the  Parthenon  peri- 
style are  6  feet  6J  inches  in  diameter,  and  2  feet  10  inches  high, 
cut  from  single  blocks  of  Pentelic  marble.  The  architraves  of 
the  Propyla.-a  at  Athens  are  each  made  up  of  two  lintels  placed 
side  by  side,  the  longest  17  feet  7  inches  long,  3  feet  10  inches 
high,  and  2  feet  4  inches  thick.  In  the  colossal  temples  of  Asia 
Minor,  where  the  taste  for  the  vast  and  grandiose  was  more  pro- 
nounced, blocks  of  much  greater  size  were  used.  These  enormous 
stones  were  cut  and  fitted  with  the  most  scrupulous  exactness. 
The  walls  of  all  important  structures  were  built  in  regular  courses 
throughout,  every  stone  carefully  bedded  with  extremely  close" 
joints.  The  masonry  was  usually  laid  up  without  cement  and 
clamped  with  metal;  there  is  no  filling  in  with  rubble  and  con- 
crete between  mere  facings  of  cut  stone,  as  in  most  modern  work. 
When  the  only  available  stone  was  of  coarse  texture  it  was  fin- 
ished with  a  coating  of  fine  stucco,  in  which  sharp  edges  and 
minute  detail  could  be  worked. 

The  details  were,  in  the  best  period,  executed  with  the  most 
extraordinary  refinement  and  care.  The  profiles  of  capitals  and 
mouldings,  the  carved  ornament,  the  arrises  of  the  (lutings,  were 
cut  with  marvellous  precision  and  delicacy.  It  has  been  rightly 
said  that  the  Greeks  "  built  like  Titans  and  finished  like  jew- 


60  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

ellers."  But  this  perfect  finish  was  never  petty  nor  wasted  on 
unworthy  or  vulgar  design.  The  just  relation  of  scale  between 
the  building  and  all  its  parts  was  admirably  maintained;  the 
ornament  was  distributed  with  rare  judgment,  and  the  vigor  of 
its  design  saved  it  from  all  appearance  of  triviality. 

The  sensitive  taste  of  the  Greeks  led  them  into  other  refine- 
ments than  those  of  mere  mechanical  perfection.  In  the  Par- 
thenon especially,  but  also  in  lesser  degree  in  other  temples,  the 
seemingly  straight  lines  of  the  building  were  all  slightly  curved, 
and  the  vertical  faces  inclined.  This  was  done  to  correct  the 
monotony  and  stiffness  of  absolutely  straight  lines  and  right 
angles,  and  certain  optical  illusions  which  their  acute  observation 
had  detected.  The  long  horizontal  lines  of  the  stylobate  and  cor- 
nice were  made  convex  upward;  a  similar  convexity  in  the  hori- 
zontal corona  of  the  pediment  counteracted  the  seeming  concav- 
ity otherwise  resulting  from  its  meeting  with  the  multiplied  in- 
clined lines  of  the  raking  cornice.  The  columns  were  almost 
imperceptibly  inclined  toward  the  cella,  and  the  corner  inter- 
columniations  made  a  trifle  narrower  than  the  rest;  while  the 
vertical  lines  of  the  arrises  of  the  flutings  were  made  convex  out- 
ward with  a  curve  of  the  utmost  beauty  and  delicacy.  By  these 
and  other  like  refinements  there  was  imparted  to  the  monument 
An  elasticity  and  vigor  of  aspect,  an  elusive  and  surprising  beauty 
impossible  to  describe  and  not  to  be  explained  by  the  mere  com- 
position and  general  proportions,  yet  manifest  to  every  cultivated 
eye.* 

*  These  refinements,  first  noticed  by  Allason  in  1814,  and  later 
confirmed  by  Cockerel!  and  Haller  as  to  the  columns,  were  pub- 
lished to  the  world  in  1838  by  Iloffer,  verified  by  Pcnrose  in  1846, 
and  further  developed  by  the  investigations  of  Ziller  and  later 
observers. 


CHAPTER   VII. 

GREEK   ARCHITECTURE.— Continued. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED:  Same  as  for  Chapter  VI.  Also, 
Bacon  and  Clarke,  Investigations  at  Assos.  Cavvadias,  Foutfles 
d'£pidaure.  D'Ooge,  The  Acropolis  at  Athens.  Espouy,  Frag- 
ments ^architecture  antique.  Harrison  and  Verrall,  Mythology 
and  Monuments  of  Ancient  Athens.  Hitorff  et  Zanth,  Recueil  des 
Monuments  de  Segeste  et  Selinonte;  Architecture  antique  de  la 
Sicile.  Magne,  Le  Parthenon.  Middleton,  Plans  and  Drawings 
0}  Athenian  Buildings.  Newton  and  Pullan,  A  History  o)  Dis- 
coveries at  Halifarnassus,  etc.  Koldewey  and  Puchstein,  Die 
griechischen  Tern  pel  in  U  nter-italien  und  Sicilien.  Waldstein, 
The  Argive  Heraum. 

HISTORIC  DEVELOPMENT.  The  history  of  Greek  archi- 
tecture, subsequent  to  the  Heroic  or  Primitive  Age,  may  be  di- 
vided into  periods  as  follows: 

The  ARCHAIC;  from  650  to  500  B.C. 

The  TRANSITIONAL;  from  500  to  460  B.C.,  or  to  the  revival  of 
prosperity  after  the  Persian  wars. 

The  PERICLEAN;   from  460  to  400  B.C. 

The  FLORID  or  ALEXANDRIAN;  from  400  to  30x3  B.C. 

The  DECADENT;  300  to  100  B.C. 

The  ROMAN;   100  B.C.  to  200  A.D. 

These  dates  are,  of  course,  arbitrary;  the  development  of  styles 
is  a  continuous  and  gradual  process;  but  divisions  like  the  above 
are  convenient  aids  in  following  this  development  through  its 
various  phases. 

ARCHAIC  PERIOD.  The  archaic  period  is  characten/.ed  by 
the  exclusive  use  of  the  Doric  order,  which  anpears  in  the  earliest 


^ 

I 


999999999999 


62  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

monuments  complete  in  all  its  parts,  but  heavy  in  its  proportions 
and  coarse  in  its  execution.  The  oldest  known  temples  of  this 
period  are  the  Apollo  Temple  at  Corinth  (650  B.C.  ?),  and  the 
Northern  Temple  on  the  acropolis  at  Selinus  in  Sicily  (cir. 
610-590  B.C.).  They  are  both  of  a  coarse  limestone  covered  with 
stucco.  The  columns  are  low  and  massive  (4^  to  4§  diameters 
in  height),  widely  spaced,  and  carry  a  very  high  entablature.  The 
triglyphs  still  appear  around  the  cella  wall  under  the  pteroma 
ceiling,  an  illogical  detail  destined  to  disappear  in  later  buildings. 
Other  temples  at  Selinus  date  from  the  middle  or  latter  part  of 
.  the  sixth  century;  they  have 

Ji  |        higher    columns     and     finer 
•  ••••••••••  •  p|        profiles  than  those  just  men- 
tioned.  The  great  Temple  of 
Zeus  at  Selinus  was  the  earli- 
est   of    five    colossal    Greek 
temples  of  very  nearly  identi- 
FIG.  33.-TEMPLE  OP  ZEUS.  cal  dimensions;    it  measured 

AGRIGENTUM.  7 

360  feet  by  167  feet  in  plan, 

but  was  never  completed.  During  the  second  half  of  the  sixth 
century  important  Doric  temples  were  built  at  PcTStum  in  South 
Italy,  and  Agrigentum  in  Sicily;  the  somewhat  primitive  temple  at 
Assos  in  Asia  Minor,  with  uncouth  carvings  of  centaurs  and  mon- 
sters on  its  architrave,  belongs  to  this  same  period.  The  Temple 
of  Zeus  at  Agrigentum  (Fig.  33)  is  another  singular  and  ex- 
ceptional design,  and  was  the  second  of  the  five  colossal  temples 
mentioned  above.  The  temple  was  entirely  enclosed  by  walls 
with  engaged  columns  showing  externally,  and  the  roof  was  sup- 
ported internally  by  two  rows  of  massive  columns.  Colossal 
atlantes  or  applied  statues  figured  in  the  design,  but  in  what 
manner  is  not  known.  The  temple  was  never  completed. 

THE  TRANSITION.  During  the  transitional  period  there  was 
a  marked  improvement  in  the  proportions,  detail,  and  workman- 
ship of  the  temples.  The  cella  was  made  broader,  the  columns 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE.  63 

more  slender,  the  entablature  lighter.  The  triglyphs  disappeared 
from  the  cella  wall,  and  sculpture  of  a  higher  order  enhanced  the 
architectural  effect.  The  profiles  of  the  mouldings  and  espe- 
cially of  the  capitals  became  more  subtle  and  refined  in  their 
curves,  while  the  development  of  the  Ionic  order  in  important 
monuments  in  Asia  Minor  was  preparing  the  way  for  the  splen- 
dors of  the  Periclean  age.  Three  temples  especially  deserve 
notice:  the  Aphaea*  Temple  on  the  island  of  jEgina,  the  Temple 
of  Zeus  at  Olympia,  and  the  so-called  Theseum — perhaps  a 
temple  of  Heracles — in  Athens.  They  belong  to  the  period  470- 
450  B.C.;  they  are  all  hexastyle  and  peripteral,  and  without 
triglyphs  on  the  cella  wall.  Of  the  three  the  second  in  the  list  is 
interesting  as  the  scene  of  those  rites  which  preceded  and  accom- 
panied the  Panhellenic  Olympian  games,  and  as  the  central 
feature  of  the  Altis,  the  most  complete  temple-group  and  enclos- 
ure among  all  Greek  remains.  It  was  built  of  a  coarse  conglom- 
erate, finished  with  fine  stucco,  and  embellished  with  sculpture  by 
the  greatest  masters  of  the  time.  The  adjacent  Heraion  (temple 
of  Hera)  was  a  highly  venerated  and  ancient  shrine,  originally 
built  with  wooden  columns  which,  according  to  Pausanias,  were 
replaced  one  by  one,  as  they  decayed,  by  stone  columns.  The 
truth  of  this  statement  is  attested  by  the  discovery  of  a  singular 
variety  of  capitals  among  its  ruins,  corresponding  to  the  various 
periods  at  which  they  were  added.  The  Theseum  is  the  most 
perfectly  preserved  of  all  Greek  temples,  and  in  the  refinement  of 
its  forms  is  only  surpassed  by  those  of  the  Periclean  age. 

THE  PERICLEAN  AGE.  The  Persian  wars  may  be  taken 
as  the  dividing  line  between  the  Transition  period  and  the  Peri- 
clean age.  The  elan  of  national  enthusiasm  that  followed  the 
expulsion  of  the  invader,  and  the  glory  and  wealth  which  accrued 
to  Athens  as  the  champion  of  all  Hellas,  resulted  in  a  splendid 
reconstruction  of  the  Attic  monuments  as  well  as  a  revival  of 

*  Formerly  identified  with  the  Temple  of  Zeus  described  by  Pau- 
sanias ;  claimed  also  until  recently  as  a  Temple  of  Athena. 


64 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


building  activity  in  Asia  Minor.  By  the  wise  administration  of 
Pericles  and  by  the  genius  of  Ictinus,  Phidias,  and  other  artists  of 
surpassing  skill,  the  Acropolis  at  Athens  was  crowned  with  a 
group  of  buildings  and  statues  absolutely  unrivalled.  Chief 
among  them  was  the  Parthenon,  the  shrine  of  Athena  Parthenos, 
which  the  critics  of  all  schools  have  agreed  in  considering  the 


FIG.    34. RUINS    OF    TUB    PARTHENON. 

most  faultless  in  design  and  execution  of  all  buildings  erected  by 
man  (Figs. 31,  34,  and  Frontispiece).  It  was  an  octastyle  perip- 
teral temple,  with  seventeen  columns  on  the  side,  and  measured 
220  by  100  feet  on  the  top  of  the  stylobate.  It  was  the  work  of 
Ictinus  and  Callicrates,  built  to  enshrine  the  noble  statue  of  the 
goddess  by  Phidias,  a  standing  chryselephantine  figure  forty  feet 
high.  It  was  the  masterpiece  of  (Jreek  architecture  not  only  by 
reason  of  its  refinements  of  detail,  but  also  on  account  of  the  beauty 
of  its  sculptural  adornments.  The  frieze  about  the  cella  wall 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE.  65 

under  the  pteroma  ceiling,  representing  in  low  relief  with  mas- 
terly skill  the  Panathenaic  procession;  the  sculptured  groups  in 
the  metopes,  and  the  superb  assemblages  of  Olympic  and  sym- 
bolic figures  of  colossal  size  in  the  pediments,  added  their  majesty 
to  the  perfection  of  the  architecture.  Here  also  the  horizontal 
curvatures  and  other  refinements  are  found  in  their  highest  devel- 
opment. Northward  from  it,  upon  the  Acropolis,  stood  the 
Erechtheum,  an  excellent  example  of  the  Attic-Ionic  style  (Figs. 
35>  36)-  Its  singular  irregularities  of  plan  and  level,  and  the 
variety  of  its  detail,  exhibit  in  a  striking  way  the  Greek  indiffer- 
ence to  mere  formal  symmetry  when 
confronted  by  practical  considera- 
tions. The  motive  in  this  case  was 
the  desire  to  include  in  one  design 
several  existing  and  venerated  shrines 
to  Attic  deities  and  heroes — Athena 
Polias,  Poseidon,  Pandrosus,  Erech- 
theus,  Boutes,  etc.  Begun  by  un- 
known architects  in  479  B.C.,  and1  FIG.  3s._pLAN  OP  ERECHTHEUM. 

not  completed  until  408  B.C.,  it  re- 
mains in  its  ruin  still  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  attractive  of 
ancient  buildings.  Its  two  colonnades  of  differing  design,  its 
beautiful  north  doorway,  and  the  unique  and  noble  caryatid 
porch  or  balcony  on  the  south  side  are  unsurpassed  in  delicate 
beauty  combined  with  vigor  of  design.*  A  smaller  monument 
of  the  Ionic  order,  the  amphiprostyle  temple  to  Nike  Apteros — 

*  Recent  investigations  by  the  Greek  Archaeological  Society  in 
connection  with  repairs  and  a  partial  restoration  of  the  Erechtheum, 
have  brought  to  light  many  peculiarities  of  design  and  construction 
hitherto  unknown.  In  the  course  of  this  work,  Mr.  G.  P.  Stevens, 
representing  the  Archaeological  Institute  of  America,  was  able  to 
demonstrate  the  existence  in  the  east  wall  of  the  original  structure 
of  two  windows,  as  shown  in  Figure  35,  which,  as  well  as  Figure 
36,  was  copied,  with  his  permission,  from  his  drawings  (see 
Journal  Arclueol.  lust,  of  America,  X.,  I.  <•/  seq.). 


66 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


the  Wingless  Victory — stands  on  a  projecting  spur  of  the  Acrop- 
olis to  the  southwest.  It  measures  only  27  feet  by  18  feet  in 
plan;  the  cella  is  nearly  square;  the  columns  are  sturdier  than 

those  of  the  Erech- 
theum,  and  the  ex- 
ecution of  the  mon- 
ument is  admirable. 
It  was  the  first  com- 
pleted of  the  extant 
buildings  of  the 
group  of  the  Acrop- 
olis and  dates  from 
466  B.C. 

FIG.    36. WEST    END    OP    ERECHTHEUM,    RESTORED.  In    tllC   PrOpylSBE 

(Fig.  37),  the  mon- 
umental gateway  to  the  Acropolis,  the  Doric  and  Ionic  orders 
appear  to  have  been  combined  for  the  first  time  (437  to  432  B.C.). 
It  was  the  master  work  of  Mnesicles.  The  front  and  rear 
facades  were  Doric  hexa- 
styles;  adjoining  the 
front  porch  were  two 
projecting  lateral  wings 
employing  a  smaller  Doric 
order.  The  central  pas- 
sageway led  between  two 
rows  of  Ionic  columns  to 
the  rear  porch,  entered  by 
five  doorways  and  crowned, 
like  the  front,  with  a  pedi- 
ment. The  whole  was 
executed  with  the  same 

splendor  and  perfection  as  the  other  buildings  of  the  Acropolis, 
and  was  a  worthy  gateway  to  the  group  of  noble  monuments 
which  crowned  that  citadel  of  the  Attic  capital.  The  two  orders 


FIG.     37. PROPYL^A     AT    ATHENS.        PLAN. 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE.  6/ 

were  also  combined  in  the  temple  of  Apollo  Epicurius  at 
Phigalaea  (Bassae).  This  temple  was  erected  in  430  B.C.  by 
Ictinus,  who  used  the  Ionic  order  internally  to  decorate  a  row  of 
projecting  piers  instead  of  free-standing  columns  in  the  naos,  in 
which  there  was  also  a  single  Corinthian  column  of  rather  archaic 
design,  which  may  have  been  used  as  a  support  for  a  statue  or 
votive  offering. 

ALEXANDRIAN  AGE.  A  period  of  reaction  followed  the  splen- 
did architectural  activity  of  the  Periclean  age.  A  succession  of 
disastrous  wars — the  Sicilian,  Peloponnesian,  and  Corinthian — 
drained  the  energies  and  destroyed  the  peace  of  European  Greece 
for  seventy-five  years,  robbing  Athens  of  her  supremacy  and  in- 
flicting wounds  from  which  she  never  recovered.  In  the  latter 
part  of  the  fourth  century,  however,  the  triumph  of  the  Mace- 
donian empire  over  all  the  Mediterranean  lands  inaugurated  a 
new  era  of  architectural  magnificence,  especially  in  Asia  Minor. 
The  keynote  of  the  art  of  this  time  was  splendor,  as  that  of  the 
preceding  age  was  artistic  perfection.  The  Corinthian  order 
came  into  use,  as  though  the  Ionic  were  not  rich  enough  for  the 
sumptuous  taste  of  the  time,  and  capitals  and  bases  of  novel  and 
elaborate  design  embellished  the  Ionic  temples  of  Asia  Minor. 
In  the  temple  of  Apollo  Didymaeus  at  Miletus,  the  plinths  of  the 
bases  were  made  octagonal  and  panelled  with  rich  scroll-carvings; 
and  the  piers  which  buttressed  the  interior  faces  of  the  cella  walls 
were  given  capitals  of  singular  but  elegant  form,  midway  between 
the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  types.  This  temple  belongs  to  the  list  of 
colossal  edifices  already  referred  to;  its  dimensions  were  366  by  163 
feet,  making  it  the  largest  of  them  all.  The  famous  Artemisium 
(temple  of  Artemis  or  Diana)  at  Kphcsus  measured  342  by  163  feet. 
Several  of  the  columns  of  the  latter  were  enriched  with  sculptured 
figures  encircling  the  lower  drums  of  the  colossal  shafts.  The 
most  lavish  expenditure  was  bestowed  upon  small  structures, 
shrines,  and  sarcophagi.  The  graceful  monument  still  visible  in 
Athens,  erected  by  the  chora-gus  Lysicrates  in  token  of  his  vie- 


68 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


tory  in  the  choral  competitions,  belongs  to  this  period  (330  B.C.). 
It  is  circular,  with  a  slightly  domical  imbricated  roof,  and  is 
decorated  with  elegant  engaged  Corinthian  columns  (Fig.  38). 
In  the  Imperial  Museum  at  Constantinople  are  several  sar- 
cophagi of  this  period,  found  at  Sidon,  but  executed  by  Greek 

artists,  and  of  exceptional  beauty. 
They  are  in  the  form  of  temples  or 
shrines;  the  finest  of  them,  sup- 
posed by  some  to  have  been  made 
for  Alexander's  favorite  general 
Perdiccas,  and  by  others  for  the 
Persian  satrap  who  figures  prom- 
inently on  its  sculptured  reliefs,  is 
the  most  sumptuous  work  of  the 
kind  in  existence.  The  exquisite 
polychromy  of  its  beautiful  reliefs 
and  the  perfection  of  its  rich  de- 
tails of  cornice,  pediment,  tiling, 
and  crestings,  make  it  an  exceed- 
ingly interesting  and  instructive 
example  of  the  minor  architecture 
of  the  period. 

THE  DECADENCE.  After  the 
decline  of  Alexandrian  magnifi- 
cence Greek  art  never  recovered  its  ancient  glory,  but  the  flame 
was  not  suddenly  extinguished.  While  in  Greece  proper  the 
works  of  the  second  and  third  centuries  B.C.,  are  for  the  most  part 
weak  and  lifeless,  like  the  Stoa  of  Attalus  (175  B.C.)  and  the 
Tower  of  the  Winds  (the  Clepsydra  of  Andronicus  Cyrrhestes, 
100  B.C.)  at  Athens  or  the  Portico  of  Philip  in  Delos,  there  were 
still  a  few  worthy  works  built  in  Asia  Minor.  The  splendid  Altar 
erected  at  Pergamon  by  Eumenes  II.  (dr.  180  B.C.)  in  the  Ionic 
order,  combined  sculpture  of  extraordinary  vigor  with  imposing 
architecture  in  masterly  fashion.  At  Aizanoi  an  Ionic  Temple  to 


FIG.  38.- 


3HORAGIC   MONUMENT  OF 
LYSICRATES. 


(Restored  model,  N.  V.) 


mmmmmmmmm mm  • 


T:::::° 


i [»•• 

J— 1  mm* 


mmmmmmmmmmummm  mmmmm'm 
mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE.  69 

Zeus,  by  some  attributed  to  the  Roman  period,  but  showing  rather 
the  character  of  good  late  Greek  work,  deserves  mention  for  its 
elegant  details,  and  especially  for  its  frieze-decoration  of  acanthus 
leaves  and  scrolls  resembling  those  of  a  Corinthian  capital. 

ROMAN  PERIOD.  During  this  period,  i.e.,  throughout  the 
second  and  first  centuries  B.C.,  the  Roman  dominion  was  spread- 
ing over  Greek  territory,  and  the  structures  erected  subsequent  to 
the  conquest  partake  of  the  Roman  character  and  mingle  Roman 
conceptions  with  Greek  details  and  vice  versa.  The  temple  of 
the  Olympian  Zeus  at  Athens  (Fig.39), a  mighty  dipteral  Corinth- 
ian edifice  measuring  354  by 
171  feet,  standing  on  a  vast 
terrace  or  temcnos  surrounded 
by  a  buttressed  wall,  was  be- 
gun by  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
(170  n. c.)  on  the  site  of  an 
earlier  unfinished  Doric  tem- 

PIG.    39. TEMPLE    OF    OLYMPIAN    ZEUS, 

pie  of  the  time  of  Pisistratus,  ATHENS. 

and    carried    out    under   the 

direction  of  the  Roman  architect,  Cossutius.  It  was  not,  how- 
ever, finally  completed  until  the  time  of  Hadrian,  130  A.D.  Mean- 
while Sulla  had  despoiled  it  of  several  columns  which  he  carried 
to  Rome  (86  B.C.),  to  use  in  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter 
on  the  Capitol,  where  they  undoubtedly  served  as  models  in  the 
development  of  the  Roman  Corinthian  order.  The  columns 
were  57  feet  high,  with  capitals  of  the  most  perfect  Corinthian 
type;  fifteen  are  now  standing,  and  one  lies  prostrate  near  by. 
To  the  Roman  period  also  belong  the  Agora  Gate  (cir.  35  B.C.), 
the  Arch  of  Hadrian  (117  A.D.),  the  Odeon  of  Regilla  or  of 
II erodes  Atticus  (143  A.D.),  at  Athens,  the  Propykea  at  Eleusis, 
and  many  temples  and  tombs,  theatres,  arches,  etc.,  in  the  Greek 
provinces. 

SECULAR   MONUMENTS;   PROPYL^EA.     The  stately   gateway 
by  which  the  Acropolis  was  entered  has  already  been  described. 


70  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

It  was  the  noblest  and  most  perfect  of  a  class  of  buildings  whose 
prototype  is  found  in  the  monumental  columnar  porches  of  the 
palace-group  at  Persepolis.  The  Greeks  never  used  the  arch  in 
these  structures,  nor  did  they  attach  to  them  the  same  importance 
as  did  most  of  the  other  nations  of  antiquity.  The  Altis  of 
Olympia,  the  national  shrine  of  Hellenism,  appears  to  have 
had  no  central  gateway  of  imposing  size,  but  a  number  of  insig- 
nificant entrances  disposed  at  random.  The  Propylaea  of 
Sunium,  Priene  and  Eleusis  are  the  most  conspicuous,  after  those 
of  the  Athenian  Acropolis.  Of  these  the  Ionic  gateway  at  Priene 
is  the  finest,  although  the  later  of  the  two  at  Eleusis  is  interesting 
for  its  anta-capitals.  (Anla  =  a.  flat  pilaster  decorating  the  end  of 
a  wing-wall  and  treated  with  a  base  and  capital  usually  differing 
from  those  of  the  adjacent  columns.)  These  are  of  Corin- 
thian type,  adorned  with  winged  horses,  scrolls,  and  anthemions 
of  an  exuberant  richness  of  design,  characteristic  of  this  late 
period. 

The  specifications  have  been  preserved  to  us  of  an  arsenal  of 
the  Periclean  age  at  the  Piraeus,  but  no  vestige  of  the  structure 
itself  remains,  nor  has  any  other  building  of  like  character  been 
preserved. 

COLONNADES,  STO^E.  These  were  built  to  connect  public 
monuments  (as  the  Uionysiac  theatre  and  Odeon  at  Athens);  or 
along  the  sides  of  great  public  squares,  as  at  Assos  and  Olympia 
(the  so-called  Echo  Hall);  or  as  independent  open  public  halls, 
as  the  Stoa  Diple  at  Thoricus.  They  afforded  shelter  from  sun 
and  rain,  places  for  promenading,  meetings  with  friends,  public 
gatherings,  and  similar  purposes.  They  were  rarely  of  great 
size,  and  most  of  them  are  of  rather  late  date,  though  the  archaic 
structure  at  Pa-stum,  known  as  the  Basilica,  was  probably  in 
reality  an  open  hall  of  this  kind. 

THEATRES,  ODEONS.  These  were  invariably  cut  out  of  the 
rocky  hillsides,  though  in  a  few  cases  (Mantimea,  Myra,  Anti- 
phellus)  a  part  of  the  seats  were  sustained  by  a  built-up  sub- 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE. 


structure  and  walls  to  eke  out  the  deficiency  of  the  hill-slope  under 
them.  The  front  of  the  excavation  was  enclosed  by  a  stage  and  a 
set  scene  or  background,  leaving  somewhat  over  a  semicircle  for 
the  orchestra  enclosed  by  the  lower  tier  of  seats  (Fig.  40).  An 
altar  to  Dionysus  (Bacchus)  was  the  essential  feature  in  the  fore- 
ground of  the  orchestra,  where  the  Dionysiac  choral  dance  was 
performed.  The  seats  formed  successive  steps  of  stone  or  marble 
sweeping  around  the  sloping  excavation,  with  carved  marble 
thrones  for  the  priests, 
archons,  and  other  digni- 
taries. The  only  architectural 
decoration  of  the  theatre  was 
that  of  the  set  scene  or  skenc, 
which  with  its  wing-walls 
(paraskenai]  enclosing  the 
stage  (logeion)  was  a  per- 
manent structure  of  stone  or 
marble  adorned  with  doors, 
cornices,  pilasters,  etc.* 
This  has  perished  in  nearly 
every  case;  but  at  Aspendus, 

in  Asia  Minor,  there  is  one  still  fairly  well  preserved,  with  a  rich 
architectural  decoration  on  its  inner  face.  The  extreme  diameter 
of  the  theatres  varied  greatly;  thus  at  Aizanoi  it  is  187  feet,  and 
at  Syracuse  495  feet.  One  of  the  best  preserved  of  Greek 
theatres  is  that  at  Fpidaurus,  the  only  one  not  altered  funda- 
mentally by  the  Romans.  The  theatr"  of  Dionysus  at  Athens 
(finished  325  n.r.)  could  accommodate  thirty  thousand  spectators. 
The  odeon  differed  from  the  theatre  principally  in  being 
smaller  and  entirely  covered  in  by  a  wooden  roof.  The  Odeon  of 

*  There  has  been  much  controversy  over  Dorpfcld's  contention 
that  the  sta^e  of  the  true  (ireek  theatre  was  on  a  level  with  the 
orchestra  and  that  the  raised  logd'on  is  in  every  case  a  late  addi- 
tion; but  the  consensus  of  opinion  seems  to  be  against  this  view. 


FIG.     40. PLAN    OF    GREEK     THEATRE. 

o.  Orchestra;  /,  London;  /,  Paraskenai; 

Skent-;  st,  st,  st»a. 


?2  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

Regilla,  built  by  Hcrodcs  Atticus  in  Athens  (143  A.D.),  is  a  well- 
preserved  specimen  of  this  class,  but  all  traces  of  its  cedar  ceiling 
and  of  its  intermediate  supports  have  disappeared. 

BUILDINGS  FOR  ATHLETIC  CONTESTS.  These  comprised 
stadia  and  hippodromes  for  races,  and  gymnasia  and  pahustnu  for 
individual  exercise,  bathing,  and  amusement.  The  stadia  and 
hippodromes  were  oblong  enclosures  surrounded  by  tiers  of  seats 
and  without  conspicuous  architectural  features.  The  pahcstra 
or  gymnasium — for  the  terms  are  not  clearly  distinguished — was 
a  combination  of  courts,  chambers,  tanks  (pixciiiff)  for  bathers 
and  exedra  or  semicircular  tiers  of  seats  for  spectators;  it  served 
not  merely  for  the  exercises  of  athletes,  but  also  for  public  reci- 
tations and  entertainments.  It  was  the  prototype  of  the  Roman 
thermae,  but  simpler  in  plan  and  adornment.  Every  Greek  city 
had  one  or  more  of  them,  but  they  have  almost  wholly  disap- 
peared, and  the  brief  description  by  Vitruvius  and  scanty  re- 
mains at  Alexandria  Troas  and  Ephesus  furnish  almost  the  only 
information  we  possess  regarding  their  form  and  arrangement. 

TOMBS.  These  are  not  numerous,  and  the  most  important 
are  found  in  Asia  Minor.  The  greatest  of  these  is  the  famed 
Mausoleum  at  Halicarnassus  in  Caria,  the  monument  erected  to 
the  king  Mausolus  by  his  widow  Artemisia  (354  B.C.;  Eig.  41). 
It  was  designed  by  Satyrus  and  Pythius  in  the  Ionic  style,  and 
comprised  a  podium  or  base  50  feet  high  and  measuring  80  feet 
by  TOO  feet,  in  which  was  the  sepulchre.  Upon  this  base  stood  a 
cella  surrounded  by  thirty-six  Ionic  columns,  and  crowned  by  a 
pyramidal  roof,  on  the  peak  of  which  was  a  colossal  marble 
quadriga  at  a  height  of  130  feet.  It  was  superbly  decorated  by 
Scopas  and  other  great  sculptors  with  statues,  marble  lions,  and  a 
magnificent  frieze.  The  British  Museum  possesses  fragments 
of  this  most  imposing  monument.  At  Xanthus  the  Nereid  Mon- 
ument, so  called  from  its  sculptured  figures  of  Nereides,  was  a 
somewhat  similar  design  on  a  smaller  scale,  with  sixteen  Ionic 
columns.  At  Mylassa  was  another  tomb  with  an  open  Corin- 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE. 


73 


thian  colonnade  supporting  a  roof  formed  in  a  stepped  pyramid. 
Some  of  the  later  rock-cut  tombs  of  Lycia  at  Myra  and  Anti1 
phellus  may  also  be  counted  as  Hellenic  works. 


PIG.    41. MAUSOLEUM    AT    HALICARNASSUS. 

(As  restored  by  the  author.) 

DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE,  Our  knowledge  of  the  typical 
Greek  house  is  principally  derived  from  literary  sources,  few  re- 
mains of  Greek  houses  having  been  found  sufficiently  well  pre- 
served to  permit  of  restoring  even  the  plan.  It  is  probable  that 
they  resembled  in  general  arrangement  the  houses  of  Pompeii 
(see  p.  107) ;  but  that  they  were  generally  insignificant  in  size  and 
decoration.  The  exterior  walls  were  pierced  only  by  the  en- 
trance doors,  all  light  being  derived  from  one  or  more  interior 
courts.  In  the  Macedonian  epoch  there  must  have  been  greater 
display  and  luxury  in  domestic  architecture,  but  no  remains  have 
come  down  to  us  of  sufficient  importance  or  completeness  to  war- 
rant further  discussion. 


74  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

MONUMENTS.  In  addition  to  those  already  mentioned  in  the 
text  the  following  should  be  enumerated : 

PREHISTORIC  PERIOD.  In  the  Islands  about  Santorin,  remains  of 
houses  antedating  1500  B.C.;  at  Tiryns  the  Acropolis,  walls,  and 
miscellaneous  ruins ;  the  like  also  at  Mycenae,  besides  various 
tombs ;  walls,  gates,  and  houses  of  six  successively  superposed 
cities  at  Hissarlik  (Troy,  Ilios.)  ;  walls  and  gates  at  Samos,  Thori- 
cus,  Menidi,  Athens,  etc.  Extensive  palace  ruins  in  Crete. 

ARCHAIC  PERIOD.  Doric  Temples  at  Metapontium  (by  Dunn  as- 
signed to  610  B.C.),  Selinus,  Agrigentum,  Paestum  ;  at  Athens  the 
first  Parthenon  ;  in  Asia  Minor  the  primitive  Ionic  Artemisium  at 
Ephesus  and  the  Heraion  at  Samos,  the  latter  the  oldest  of  colossal 
Greek  temples. 

TRANSITIONAL  PERIOD.  At  Agrigentum,  temples  of  Concord,  Cas- 
tor and  Pollux,  Demeter,  Aesculapius,  all  circ.  480  B.C.  ;  temples  at 
Selinus  and  Segesta ;  at  Delphi,  temple  of  Apollo,  various  shrines, 
etc. 

PERICLEAN  PERIOD.  In  Athens  the  Ionic  temple  on  the  lllissus, 
destroyed  during  the  last  century;  on  Cape  Sunium  the  temple 
of  Athena,  430  B.C.,  partly  standing;  at  Nemea,  the  temple  of  Zeus; 
at  Tegea,  the  temple  of  Athena  Elea  (400?  B.C.)  ;  at  Rhamnus,  the 
temples  of  Themis  and  of  Nemesis  ;  at  Argos,  two  temples,  stoa, 
and  other  buildings ;  all  these  were  Doric. 

ALEXANDRIAN  PERIOD.  The  temple  of  Dionysus  at  Teos ;  temple 
of  Artemis  Leucophryne  at  Magnesia,  both  about  330  B.C.  and  of 
the  Ionic  order;  at  Epidaurus,  temple  of  Aesculapius,  3<So  B.r.  ; 
theatre;  circular  tholos  (or  well-house?),  Corinthian  internally, 
Doric  externally,  about  360  B.C.  ;  portico,  temple  of  Artemis,  etc. 

DECADENCE  AND  ROMAN  PERIOD.  At  Athens  the  Stoa  of  Eumenes, 
circ.  170  ]!.c.;  the  monument  of  Philopappus  on  the  Museum  hill, 
no  A.D.  ;  the  Gymnasium  of  Hadrian,  114  to  137  A.I).  ;  the  last  two 
of  the  Corinthian  order. 

THEATRES.  P>csides  those  already  mentioned  there  are  important 
remains  of  theatres  at  Argos,  Segesta,  lassus  (400?  B.C.),  Delos, 
Sicyon,  Patara,  and  Thoricus ;  besides  many  others  of  less  im- 
portance scattered  through  the  Hellenic  world.  At  Taormina  are 
extensive  ruins  of  a  large  Greek  theatre  rebuilt  in  the  Roman 
period. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED:  As  before,  Anderson  and  Spiers, 
Baumeister,  Rcber,  Biihlmann  (see  General  Bibliography). 
Canina,  L'Arcliileltiira  antica  dcscritta,  etc.  Choisy,  UArt  de 
batir  chcz  les  Remains.  Dennis,  The  Cities  and  Cemeteries  o) 
Etruria.  Desgodetz,  Rome  in  her  Ancient  Grandeur.  Durm, 
Die  Baukunst  dcr  Etrusker;  Die  Baukunst  der  Romcr  (in  Hdbuch. 
d.  Arch).  Lanciani,  Ancient  Rome  in  the  Light  of  Modern  Dis- 
covery; New  Tales  of  Old  Rome;  Ruins  and  Excavations  oj 
Ancient  Rome.  De  Martha,  Arclieohgic  ctrusque  el  romaine. 
Middleton,  The  Remains  of  Ancient  Rome.  Taylor  and  Cresy, 
The  Architectural  Antiquities  of  Rome. 

LAND  AND  PEOPLE.  The  geographical  position  of  Italy  con- 
ferred upon  her  special  and  obvious  advantages  for  taking  up 
and  carrying  northward  and  westward  the  arts  of  civilization.  A 
scarcity  of  good  harbors  was  the  only  drawback  amid  the  bless- 
ings of  a  glorious  climate,  fertile  soil,  varied  scenery,  and  rich 
material  resources.  From  a  remote  antiquity  Dorian  colonists 
had  occupied  the  southern  portion  and  the  island  of  Sicily,  enrich- 
ing them  with  splendid  monuments  of  Doric  art;  and  Phoenician 
commerce  had  brought  thither  the  products  of  Oriental  art  and 
industry.  The  founding  of  Rome  (assigned  by  popular  tradition 
to  the  date  75,^5  n. c.)  established  the  nucleus  about  which  the 
sundry  populations  of  Italy  were  to  crystallize  into  the  Roman 
nation,  under  the  dominating  influence  of  the  Latin  element. 
Later  on,  the  absorption  of  the  Etruscans  added  to  this  composite 
people  a  race  of  builders' and  engineers,  as  yet  rude  and  uncouth 
in  their  art,  but  destined  to  become  a  powerful  factor  in  develop- 


76  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

ing  the  new  architecture  that  was  to  spring  from  the  contact  of  the 
practical  Romans  with  the  noble  art  of  the  Greek  centres. 

GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS.  While  the  Greeks  be- 
queathed to  posterity  the  most  perfect  models  of  form  in  literary 
and  plastic  art,  it  was  reserved  for  the  Romans  to  work  out  the 
applications  of  these  to  every-day  material  life.  The  Romans 
were  above  all  things  a  practical  people.  Their  consummate 
skill  as  organizers  is  manifest  in  the  marvellous  administrative 
institutions  of  their  government,  under  which  they  united  the 
most  distant  and  diverse  nationalities.  Seemingly  deficient  in 
culture,  they  were  yet  able  to  recast  the  forms  of  Greek  architec- 
ture in  new  moulds,  and  to  evolve  therefrom  a  mighty  architecture 
adapted  to  wholly  novel  conditions.  They  brought  engineering 
into  the  service  of  architecture,  which  they  fitted  to  the  varied  re- 
quirements of  government,  public  amusement,  private  luxury, 
and  the  common  comfort.  They  covered  the  antique  world  with 
arches  and  amphitheatres,  with  villas,  baths,  basilicas,  and  tem- 
ples, all  bearing  the  unmistakable  impress  of  Rome,  though 
wrought  by  artists  and  artisans  of  divers  races.  Only  an  extra- 
ordinary genius  for  organization  could  have  accomplished  such 
results. 

The  architects  of  Rome  marvellously  extended  the  range  of 
their  art,  and  gave  it  a  flexibility  by  which  it  accommodated  itself 
to  the  widest  variety  of  materials  and  conditions.  They  made 
the  arch  and  vault  the  basis  of  their  system  of  design,  employing 
them  on  a  scale  previously  undreamed  of,  and  in  combinations 
of  surpassing  richness  and  majesty.  They  systematized  their 
methods  of  construction  so  that  soldiers  and  barbarians  could 
execute  the  rough  mass  of  their  buildings,  and  formulated  the 
designing  of  the  decorative  details  so  that  artisans  of  moderate 
skill  could  execute  them  with  good  effect.  They  carried  the  prin- 
ciple of  repetition  of  motives  to  its  utmost  limit,  and  sought  to 
counteract  any  resulting  monotony  by  the  scale  and  splendor  of 
the  design.  Above  all  they  developed  planning  into  a  fine  art, 


ROMAN   ARCHITECTURE.  77 

displaying  their  genius  in  a  wonderful  variety  of  combination  and 
in  an  unfailing  sense  of  the  demands  of  constructive  propriety, 
practical  convenience,  and  artistic  effect.  Where  Egyptian  or 
Greek  architecture  shows  one  type  of  plan,  the  Roman  shows  a 
score. 

GREEK  INFLUENCE.  Previous  to  the  closing  years  of  the 
Republic  the  Romans  had  no  art  but  the  Etruscan.  The  few 
buildings  of  importance  they  possessed  were  of  Etruscan 
design  and  workmanship,  excepting  a  small  number  built  by 
Greek  hands.  It  was  not  until  the  Empire  that  Roman  architec- 
ture took  on  a  truly  national  form.  True  Roman  architecture  is 
essentially  imperial.  The  change  from  the  primitive  Etruscan 
style  to  the  splendors  of  the  imperial  age  was  due  to  the  conquest 
of  the  Greek  states.  Not  only  did  the  Greek  campaigns*  enrich 
Rome  with  an  unprecedented  wealth  of  artistic  spoils;  they  also 
brought  into  Italy  hosts  of  Greek  artists,  and  filled  the  minds  of 
the  campaigners  with  the  ambition  to  realize  in  their  own  domin- 
ions the  marble  colonnades,  the  temples,  theatres,  and  propyla.'a 
of  the  Greek  cities  they  had  pillaged.  The  Greek  orders  were 
adopted,  altered,  and  applied  to  arcaded  designs  as  well  as  to  peri- 
styles and  other  open  colonnades.  The  marriage  of  the  column 
and  arch  gave  birth  to  a  system  of  forms  as  characteristic  of 
Roman  architecture  as  the  Doric  or  Ionic  colonnade  is  of  the 
Greek. 

THE  ROMAN  ORDERS.  To  meet  the  demands  of  Roman 
taste  the  Etruscan  column  was  retained  with  its  simple  entabla- 
ture; the  Doric  and  Ionic  were  adopted  in  a  modified  form;  the 
Corinthian  was  developed  into  a  complete  and  independent  order, 
and  the  Composite  was  added  to  the  list.  An  approximation  to 
a  standard  system  of  proportions  for  all  these  five  orders  was 
gradually  evolved,  and  the  mouldings  were  profiled  with  arcs  of 
circles  instead  of  the  subtler  Greek  curves.  It  must  not  be  sup- 
posed, however,  that  all  this  was  due  to  arbitrary  rules  imposed 
*  Sec  p.  89. 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


by  authority.  It  was  a  gradual  convergence  of  practice  due  to 
growing  experience,  and  the  uniformity  was  much  less  than  is 
sometimes  imagined.  In  the  building  of  many-storied  structures 
the  orders  were  superposed,  the  more  slender  over  the  sturdier, 
in  an  orderly  and  graded  succession.  The  immense  extent  and 
number  of  the  Roman  buildings,  the 
coarse  materials  often  used,  the  relative 
scarcity  of  highly  trained  artisans,  and 
above  all,  the  necessity  of  making  a 
given  amount  of  artistic  design  serve 
for  the  largest  possible  amount  of 
architecture,  combined  to  direct  the 
designing  of  detail  into  uniform  chan- 
nels. Thus  in  time  was  established  a 
sort  of  canon  of  proportions,  which 
was  reduced  to  rules  by  Vitruvius,  and 
revived  in  much  more  detailed  and 
precise  form  by  Vignola  in  the  six- 
teenth century. 

In  each  of  the  orders,  including  the 
Doric,  the  column  was  given  a  base 
one  half  of  a  diameter  in  height  (the 
unit  of  measurement  being  the  diam- 
eter of  the  lower  part  of  the  shaft, 
the  crassitudo  of  Vitruvius).  The  shaft 
was  made  to  contract  about  one-sixtli 
in  diameter^  toward  the  capital,  under 

which  it  was  terminated  by  an  astragal  or  collar  of  small  mould- 
ings; at  the  base  it  ended  in  a  slight  Hare  and  fillet  called  the 
cincture.  The  entablature  was  in  all  cases  given  not  far  from  one 
quarter  the  height  of  the  whole  column.  The  Tuscan  order  was 
a  rudimentary  or  Ftruscan  Doric  with  a  column  seven  diameters 
high  and  a  simple  entablature  without  triglyphs,  mulules,  or 
*  See  footnote  to  Figure  26. 


FIO.  42.— ROMAN"  DORIC  ORDER 
(THEATRE  OK  MARCELLUS).* 


ROMAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


79 


dentils.  But  few  examples  of  its  use  are  known.  The  Doric 
(Fig.  42)  retained  the  triglyphs  and  metopes,  the  mutules  and 
gutUe  of  the  Greek;  but  the  column  was  made  eight  diameters 
high,  the  shaft  was  smooth  or  had  deep  (lutings  separated  by 
narrow  fillets,  and  was  usually  provided  with  a  simple  moulded 
base  on  a  square  plinth.  Mutules  were  used  only  over  the 
triglyphs,  and  were  even  replaced  in 
some  cases  by  dentils;  the  corona 
was  made  lighter  than  the  Greek,  and 
a  cymatium  replaced  the  antefme  on 
the  lateral  cornices.  The  Ionic 
(Fig.  43)  underwent  fewer  changes, 
and  these  principally  in  the  smaller 
mouldings  and  details  of  the  capital. 
The  column  was  approximately 
nine  diameters  high.  The  Corin- 
thian order,  the  column  of  which  was 
given  a  height  of  ten  diameters,  was 
made  into  an  independent  order  by 
the  designing  of  a  special  base  of 
small  tori  and  scoiicc,  and  by  sumptu- 
ously carved  modillions  or  brackets 
enriching  the  cornice  and  supporting 
the  corona  above  a  denticulated  bed- 
mould  (Fig.  44).  Though  the  first 

designers  of  the  modillion  were  probably  Greeks,  it  must,  never- 
theless, be  taken  as  really  a  Roman  device,  worthily  completing 
the  essentially  Roman  Corinthian  order.  The  Composite  was 
formed  by  combining  into  one  capital  portions  of  the  Ionic  and 
Corinthian,  and  giving  to  it  a  simplified  form  of  the  Corinthian 
cornice.  The  Corinthian  order  remained,  however,  the  favorite 
order  of  Roman  architecture. 

USE  OF  THE   ORDERS.     The  Romans  introduced  many   in- 
novations in  the  general  use  and  treatment  of  the  orders.     Mono- 


-  —  ROMAN   IONIC  ORDER. 


So 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


lithic  shafts  were  preferred  to  those  built  up  of  superposed  drums. 
The  fluting  was  omitted  on  these,  and  when  hard  and  semi- 
precious stone  like  porphyry  or  verd-antique  was  the  material,  it 
was  highly  polished  to  bring  out  its  color.  These  polished  mono- 
liths were  often  of  great 
size,  and  they  were  used 
in  almost  incredible 
numbers. 

Another  radical  de- 
parture from  Greek  usage 
was  the  mounting  of 
columns  on  pedestals  to 
secure  greater  height 
without  increasing  the 
size  of  the  column  and  its 
entablature.  The  Greek 
anta  was  developed  into 
the  Roman  pilaster  or 
flattened  wall-column, 
and  every  free  column,  or 
range  of  columns  perpen- 
dicular to  the  facade,  had 
its  corresponding  pilaster 
to  support  the  wall-end  of 
the  architrave.  'But  the 
most  radical  innovation 
was  the  general  use  of 

engaged  columns  as  wall-decorations  or  buttresses.  The  en- 
gaged column  projected  from  the  wall  by  more  than  half  its 
diameter,  and  was  built  up  with  the  wall  as  a  part  of  its  substance 
(Fig.  45).  The  entablature  was  in  many  cases  advanced  only 
over  the  columns,  between  which  it  was  set  back  almost  to  the 
plane  of  the  wall.  This  practice  is  open  to  the  obvious  criticism 
that  it  makes  the  column  appear  superfluous  by  depriving  it  of  its 


-I'UKl.VriUAN    ORDER    (TEMPLE    OF 
CASTOR    AND    POLLUX). 


ROMAN7   ARCHITECTURE. 


8l 


function  of  supporting  the  continuous  entablature.  The  objec- 
tion has  less  weight  when  the  projecting  entablature  over  the 
column  serves  as  a  pedestal  for  a  statue  or  similar  object,  which 
restores  to  the  column  its  function  as  a  support  (see  the  Arch  of 
Constantine,  Fig.  63). 

ARCADES.  The  orders,  though 
probably  at  first  used  only  as  free 
supports  in  porticoes  and  colon- 
nades, were  early  applied  as  dec- 
orations to  arcaded  structures. 
This  practice  became  general  with 
the  multiplication  of  many-storied 
arcades  like  those  of  the  amphi- 
theatres, the  engaged  columns  being 
set  between  the  arches  as  buttresses, 
supporting  entablatures  which 
marked  the  divisions  into  stories 
(Fig.  45).  This  combination  has 
been  assailed  as  a  false  and  illogical 
device,  but  the  criticism  proceeds 
from  a  too  narrow  conception  of 
architectural  propriety.  It  is  de- 
fensible upon  both  artistic  and  logi- 
cal grounds;  for  it  not  only  furnishes 
a  most  desirable  play  of  light  and 
shade  and  a  pleasing  contrast  of 
rectangular  and  curved  lines,  but 
by  emphasizing  the  constructive 

divisions  and  elements  of  the  building  and  the  vertical  support 
of  the  piers,  it  also  contributes  to  the  expressiveness  and  vigor  of 
the  design. 

VAULTING.  The  Romans  substituted  vaulting  in  brick, 
concrete,  or  masonry  for  wooden  ceilings  wherever  possible,  l>oth 
in  public  and  private  edifices.  The  Etruscans  were  the  first 


PIO.    45.— ROMAN    ARCADB    WITH 
ENGAGED   COLUMNS. 

(From  the  Colosseum.) 


82 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


spray 


FIG.    46. — BARREL  VAULT. 


vault-builders,  and  the  Cloaca  Maxima,  the  great  sewer  of  Repub- 
lican Rome  (about  500  B.C.)  still  remains  as  a  monument  of  their 
engineering  skill.     Probably  not  only  Etruscan  engineers  (whose 
traditions  were  perhaps  derived  from 
Asiatic  sources  in  the  remote  past), 
but  Asiatic   builders  also  from   con- 
quered  eastern   provinces,  were    en- 
gaged together  in  the  development  of 
the  wonderful  system  of  vaulted  con- 
struction to  which  Roman  architecture 
so  largely  owed  its  grandeur.     Three 
types  of  vault  were  commonly  used: 
the     barrel-vault,     the     groined     or 
four-part  vault,  and  the  dome. 

The  barrel-vault  (Fig.  46)  was  generally  semi-cylindrical  in 
section,  and  was  used  to  cover  corridors  and  oblong  halls,  like  the 
temple-cellas,  or  was  bent  around  a  curve,  as  in  amphitheatre 
passages. 

The  groined  vault  is  formed  by  the  intersection  of  two  barrel- 
vaults  (Fig.  47).  When  several  compartments  of  groined  vault- 
ing are  placed  together  over  an  oblong 
plan,  a  double  advantage  is  secured. 
Lateral  windows  can  be  carried  up  to 
the  full  height  of  the  vaulting  instead  of 
being  stopped  below  its  springing;  and 
the  weight  and  thrust  of  the  vaulting 
are  concentrated  upon  a  number  of  iso- 
lated points  instead  of  being  exerted 
along  the  whole  extent  of  the  side  walls, 
as  with  the  barrel-vault.  The  Romans 
saw  that  it  was  sufficient  to  dispose  the 
masonry  at  these  points  in  masses  at  right  angles  to  the  length  of 
the  hall,  to  resist  better  the  lateral  thrust  of  the  vault.  This  ap- 
pears clearly  in  the  plan  of  the  Basilica  of  Constantino  (Fig.  58). 


FIG.    47. — GROINED    VAULT. 

g,  g,  Groins. 


ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE.  83 

The  dome  was  in  almost  all  Roman  examples  supported  on  a 
circular  wall  built  up  from  the  ground,  as  in  the  Pantheon  (Fig. 
54).  The  pendentive  dome,  sustained  by  four  or  eight  arches 
over  a  square  or  octagonal  plan,  is  not  found  in  true  Roman 
buildings. 

The  Romans  made  of  the  vault  something  more  than  a  mere 
constructive  device.  It  became  in  their  hands  an  element  of 
interior  effect  at  least  equally  important  with  the  arch  and  column. 
No  style  of  architecture  has  ever  evolved  nobler  forms  of  ceiling 
than  the  groined  vault  and  the  dome.  Moreover,  the  use  of 
vaulting,  besides  providing  an  absolutely  fireproof  form  of  roof, 
also  made  possible  effects  of  unencumbered  spaciousness  and 
amplitude  which  could  never  be  compassed  by  any  combination 
of  piers  and  columns.  While  Greece  gave  to  architecture  ex- 
amples of  perfect  proportion  and  finish,  the  Romans  endowed  it 
with  new  resources  and  started  it  on  wholly  new  lines  of  develop- 
ment of  far-reaching  importance. 

CONSTRUCTION.  The  constructive  methods  of  the  Romans 
varied  with  the  conditions  and  resources  of  different  provinces, 
but  were  everywhere  dominated  by  the  same  practical  spirit. 
Their  vaulted  architecture  demanded  for  the  support  of  its  enor- 
mous weights  and  for  resistance  to  its  disruptive  thrusts,  piers  and 
buttresses  of  great  mass.  To  construct  these  wholly  of  cut  stone 
appeared  preposterous  and  wasteful  to  the  Roman.  Italy 
abounds  in  clay,  lime,  and  a  volcanic  product,  pozzolana,  which 
makes  an  admirable  hydraulic  cement.  With  these  materials  it 
was  possible  to  employ  unskilled  labor  for  the  great  bulk  of  this 
massive  masonry,  and  to  erect  with  the  greatest  rapidity  and  in 
the  most  economical  manner  those  stupendous  piles  which,  even 
in  their  ruin,  excite  the  admiration  of  every  beholder. 

STONE,  CONCRETE,  AND  BRICK  MASONRY.  For  build- 
ings of  an  externally  decorative  character  such  as  temples,  arches 
of  triumph,  and  amphitheatres,  as  well  as  in  all  places  where 
brick  and  concrete  were  not  easily  obtained,  stone  was  employed. 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


The  walls  were  built  by  laying  up  the  inner  and  outer  faces  in 
ashlar  or  cut  stone,  and  filling  in  the  intermediate  space  with  rub- 
ble (random  masonry  of  uncut  stone)  laid  up  in  cement,  or  with 
concrete  of  broken  stone  and  cement  in  successive  layers,  forming 
a  conglomerate  closely  united  with  the  face-masonry.  In  Syria 
and  Egypt  the  local  preference  for  stones  of  enormous  size  was 
gratified,  and  even  surpassed,  as  in  Herod's  terrace-walls  for  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem  (p.  40),  and  in  the  splendid  structures  of 
Palmyra  and  Baalbec.  In  Italy,  however,  stones  of  moderate 
size  were  preferred,  and  when  blocks  of  unusual  dimensions  occur 
they  are  in  many  cases  marked  with  false  joints,  dividing  them 
into  apparently  smaller  blocks,  lest  they  should  dwarf  the  building 
by  their  large  scale.  The  general  use  in 
the  Augustan  period  of  marble  for  a 
decorative  lining  or  wainscot  in  interiors 
led  in  time  to  the  objectionable  practice 
of  coating  buildings  of  concrete  with  an 
apparel  of  sham  marble  masonry,  by 
carving  false  joints  upon  an  external 
veneer  of  thin  slabs  of  that  material. 
Ordinary  concrete  walls  were  frequently 
faced  with  small  blocks  of  tufa,  called, 
according  to  the  manner  of  its  appli- 
cation, opus  rcticulatum,  opus  inccrtum, 

opus  spi<~ati{))i,  etc.  (Fig.  48.)  In  most  cases,  however,  the 
facing  was  of  carefully  executed  brickwork,  covered  sometimes 
by  a  coating  of  stucco.  The  bricks  were  large,  measuring  from 
one  to  two  feet  square  where  used  for  quoins  or  arches,  but  tri- 
angular where  they  served  only  as  facings.  Bricks  were  also 
used  in  the  construction  of  skeleton  ribs  for  concrete  vaults  of 
large  span. 

VAULTING.  Here,  as  in  the  wall-masonry,  economy  and 
common  sense  devised  methods  extremely  simple  for  accomplish- 
ing vast  designs.  While  the  smaller  vaults  were,  so  to  speak,  cast 


FIG.    48.— ROMAN   WALL 
MASONRY. 

a,  Brickwork;  li.  Tufa 
ashlar;  r.  Opus  reticu- 
latuin;  t.  Opus  inccrttint. 


ROMAN   ARCHITECTURE.  85 

in  concrete  upon  moulds  made  of  rough  hoards,  the  larger  vaults 
appear  to  have  been  often  built  with  the  aid  of  a  skeleton  of  light 
ribs  of  brick,  which  served  as  supports  for  intermediate  centrings 
on  which  to  cast  the  concrete  fillings  between  them.  The  whole 
vault,  once  hardened,  formed  really  a  monolithic  curved  lintel, 
exerting  no  thrust  whatever,  so  that  the  extraordinary  precau- 
tions against  lateral  disruption  practised  by  the  Romans  were,  in 
fact,  in  many  cases  quite  superfluous. 

DECORATION.  The  temple  of  Castor  and  Pollux  in  the 
Forum  (long  miscalled  the  temple  of  Jupitor  Stator),  is  a  typical 
example  of  Roman  architectural  decoration,  in  which  richness 
was  preferred  to  the  subtler  refinements  of  design  (see  Fig.  44). 
The  splendid  figure-sculpture  which  adorned  the  Greek  monu- 
ment would  have  been  inappropriate  on  the  theatres  and  thermae 
of  Rome  or  the  provinces,  even  had  there  been  the  taste  or  the 
skill  to  produce  it.  Conventional  carved  ornament  was  substi- 
tuted in  its  place,  and  developed  into  a  splendid  system  of  highly 
decorative  forms.  Two  principal  elements  appear  in  this  decora- 
tion— the  acanthus-leaf,  as  the  basis  of  a  whole  series  of  wonder- 
fully varied  motives;  and  symbolism,  represented  principally  by 
what  are  technically  termed  grotesques — combinations  of  appar- 
ently incongruous  natural  forms,  as  when  an  infant's  body  termi- 
nates in  a  bunch  of  foliage  (Fig.  49).  Only  to  a  limited  extent  do 
we  find  true  sculpture  employed  as  decoration,  and  that  mainly 
for  triumphal  arches  or  memorial  columns. 

The  architectural  mouldings  were  nearly  always  carved,  the 
Greek  water-leaf  and  egg-and-dart  forming  the  basis  of  most  of 
the  enrichments;  but  these  were  greatly  elaborated  and  treated 
with  more  minute  detail  than  the  Greek  prototypes.  Friezes  and 
bands  were  commonly  ornamented  with  the  foliated  scroll  or 
rinccaii,  which  was  as  characteristic  of  Roman  art  as  the  an- 
themion  was  of  the  Greek.  It  consists  of  a  continuous  stem 
throwing  out  alternately  on  either  side  branches  which  curl  into 
spirals  and  are  richly  adorned  with  rosettes,  acanthus-leaves, 


86 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


scrolls,  tendrils,  and  blossoms.  In  the  best  examples  the  detail 
was  modelled  with  great  care  and  minuteness,  and  the  motive 
itself  was  treated  with  extraordinary  variety  and  fertility  of  inven- 
tion. A  derived  and  enriched  form  of  the  anthemion  was  some- 
times used  for  bands  and  friezes;  and  grotesques,  dolphins, 
griffins,  infant  genii,  wreaths,  festoons,  ribbons,  eagles,  and 
masks  are  also  common  features  in  Roman  relief  carving. 


FIG.    49. ROMAN    CARVED   ORNAMENT. 

(Latcr.in  Museum.) 

The  Romans  made  great  use  of  panelling  and  of  moulded 
plaster  in  their  interior  decoration,  especially  for  ceilings.  The 
panelling  of  domes  and  vaults,  in  various  geometric  forms  pleas- 
ingly combined,  was  usually  roughly  shaped  in  their  first  con- 
struction and  finished  afterward  in  stucco  with  rich  mouldings  and 
rosettes  (Fig.  50).  In  works  of  a  small  scale  the  panels  and 
decorations  were  wrought  in  relief  in  a  heavy  coating  of  plaster 
applied  to  the  finished  structure,  and  these  stucco  reliefs  are 
among  the  most  refined  and  charming  products  of  Roman  art. 
(Baths  of  Titus;  baths  at  Pompeii;  Palace  of  the  Ciesars  and 
tombs  at  Rome.) 


ROMAN   ARCHITECTURE.  87 

COLOR  DECORATION.  Plaster  was  also  used  as  ground  for 
painting,  executed  in  distemper,  in  fresco,  or  by  the  encaustic 
process,  wax  liquefied  by  a  hot  iron  being  the  medium  for  apply- 
ing the  color  in  the  latter  case.  Pompeii  and  Herculanum  furnish 
countless  examples  of  brilliant 
wall-painting  in  which  strong 
primary  colors  form  the  ground, 
and  a  semi-naturalistic,  semi- 
fantastic  representation  of  fig- 
ures, architecture  and  landscape 
is  mingled  with  festoons,  vines, 
and  purely  conventional  orna- 
ment. Mosaic  was  also  employed 
to  decorate  floors  and  wall-spaces, 
and  sometimes  for  ceilings.*  The 
later  imperial  baths  and  palaces 
were  especially  rich  in  mosaic  of 
the  kind  called  opus  Grecanicum, 
executed  with  numberless  minute 
cubes  of  stone  or  glass,  as  in  the 
Baths  of  Caracalla  and  the  Villa  of  Hadrian  at  Tivoli. 

To  the  walls  of  monumental  interiors,  such  as  temples,  basili- 
cas, and  therrme,  splendor  of  color  was  given  by  veneering  them 
with  thin  slabs  of  rare  and  richly  colored  marble.  No  limit  seems 
to  have  been  placed  upon  the  costliness  or  amount  of  these  pre- 
cious materials.  Byzantine  architecture  borrowed  from  this 
practice  its  system  of  interior  color  decoration. 


PIG.    50.  — ROMAN    CEILING   PANELS. 

(a,  From  Palmyra;  t.  Basilica  of  Con- 
stantine.) 


*  Sec  Van  Dyke's  History  of  Painting,  p.  33. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE— Continued. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED:  Same  as  for  Chapter  VIII.  Adams, 
Ruins  of  the  Palace  of  Spalatro.  Burn,  Rome  and  the  Campagna. 
Cameron,  Description  0}  the  Baths  o)  the  Romans.  Frothingham, 
Roman  Triumphal  Arches.  Also,  Guhl  and  Koner,  Life  of  the 
Ancient  Greeks  and  Romans.  Man,  tr.  by  Kelcey,  Pompeii, 
its  Life  and  Art.  Mazois,  Ruines  de  Pompeii.  Niccolini,  Lc 
Case  cd  i  Monumcnti  di  Pompeii.  Von  Presuhn,  Die  ncueste 
Ausgrabungcn  zu  Pompeii.  Wood,  Ruins  of  Palmyra  and 
Baalbec. 

THE  ETRUSCAN  STYLE.  Although  the  first  Greek  archi- 
tects were  employed  in  Rome  as  early  as  493  B.C.,  the  architecture 
of  the  Republic  was  practically  Etruscan  until  nearly  100  B.C. 
Its  monuments,  consisting  mainly  of  city  walls,  tombs,  and  tem- 
ples, are  all  marked  by  a  general  uncouthness  of  detail,  denoting 
a  lack  of  artistic  refinement,  but  they  display  considerable  con- 
structive skill.  In  the  Etruscan  walls  we  meet  with  both  poly- 
gonal and  regularly  coursed  masonry;  in  both  kinds  the  true  arch 
appears  as  the  almost  universal  form  for  gates  and  openings.  A 
famous  example  is  the  Augustan  Gate  at  Perugia,  a  late  work  re- 
built about  40  B.C.,  but  thoroughly  Etruscan  in  style.  At  Vola- 
terne  (Volterra)  is  another  arched  gate,  and  in  Perugia  fragments 
of  still  another  appear  built  into  the  modern  walls. 

The  Etruscans  built  both  structural  and  excavated  tombs; 
they  consisted  in  general  of  a  single  chamber  with  a  slightly 
arched  or  gabled  roof,  supported  in  the  larger  tombs  on  heavy 
square  piers.  The  interiors  were  covered  with  pictures;  exter- 
nally there  was  little  ornament  except  about  the  gable  and  door- 


ROMAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


89 


way.  The  latter  had  a  stepped  or  moulded  frame  with  curious 
crossettes  or  ears  projecting  laterally  at  the  top.  The  gable  re- 
called the  wooden  roofs  of  Etruscan  temples,  but  was  coarse  in 
detail,  especially  in  its  mouldings.  Sepulchral  monuments  of 
other  types  are  also  met  with,  such  as  cippi  or  memorial  pillars, 
sometimes  in  groups  of  live  on  a  single  pedestal  (tomb  at  Albano). 

Among  the  temples  of  Etruscan  style  that  of  Jupiter  Capitol- 
inus  on  the  Capitol  at  Rome,  destroyed  by  fire  in  80  B.C.,  was 
the  chief.  Three  narrow  chambers  side  by  side  formed  a  cella 
nearly  square  in  plan,  preceded  by  a  hexastyle  porch  of  huge 
Doric,  or  rather  Tuscan,  columns  arranged  in  three  aisles, 
widely  spaced  and  carrying  ponderous  wooden  architraves. 
The  roof  was  of  wood;  the  cymatium  and  ornaments,  as 
well  as  the  statues  in  the  pediment, 
were  of  terra-cotta,  painted  and 
gilded.  The  details  in  general  showed 
acquaintance  with  Greek  models, 
which  appeared  in  debased  and  awk- 
ward imitations  of  triglyphs,  cornices, 
antefixa1,  etc. 

GREEK  STYLE.  The  victories  of 
Marcellus  at  Syracuse,  212  B.C.,  Fa- 
bius  Maximus  at  Tarentum  (209  B.C.), 
Flaminius  (196  B.C.),  Mummius  (146 
B.C.),  Sulla  (86  B.C.),  and  others  in  the 
various  Greek  provinces,  steadily  in- 
creased the  vogue  of  Greek  archi- 
tecture and  the  number  of  Greek 
artists  in  Rome.  The  temples  of  the 

last    two    centuries   B.C.,   and    Some  of         FIG.  SI. -TEMPLE  FORTUNA 

earlier  date,  though    still  Etruscan  in 

plan,  were  in  many  cases  strongly  Greek  in  the  character  of 
their  details.  A  few  have  remained  to  our  time  in  tolerable 
preservation.  The  temple  of  Fortuna  Virilis  (really  of  Fors 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


Fortuna  ?),  of  the  second  century  (?)  B.C.,  is  a  tetrastyle  prostyle 
pseudoperipteral  temple  with  a  high  podium  or  base,  a  typical 
Etruscan  cella,  and  a  deep  porch,  now  walled  up,  but  thoroughly 

Greek  in  the  elegant  details  of 
its  Ionic  order  (Fig.  51).  Two 
circular  temples,  both  called 
erroneously  Temples  of  Vesta, 
one  at  Rome  near  the  Cloaca 
Maxima,  the  other  at  Tivoli 
(Fig.  52),  belong  among  the 
monuments  of  Greek  style. 
The  first  was  probably  dedi- 
cated to  Hercules,  the  second 
probably  to  the  Sibyls;  the 
latter  being  much  the  better 
preserved  of  the  two.  Both 
were  surrounded  by  peristyles 
of  eighteen  Corinthian  columns, 
and  probably  covered  by  coni- 
cal roofs  with  gilded  bronze 
tiles.  The  Corinthian  order 
appears  here  complete  with  its 
modillion  cornice,  but  the  crisp- 
ness  of  the  detail  and  the  fine- 
ness of  the  execution  are  Greek 

and  not  Roman.  These  temples  date  from  about  72  B.C.,  though 
the  one  at  Rome  was  probably  rebuilt  in  the  first  century  A.D. 

IMPERIAL  ARCHITECTURE:  AUGUSTAN  AGE.  Fven  in  the 
temples  of  Greek  style  Roman  conceptions  of  plan  and  composi- 
tion are  dominant.  The  Greek  architect  was  not  free  to  repro- 
duce textually  Greek  designs  or  details,  however  strongly  he 
might  impress  with  the  Greek  character  whatever  he  touched. 
The  demands  of  imperial  splendor  and  the  building  of  great  edi- 
fices of  varied  form  and  complex  structure,  like  the  thermae  and 


PIG.    52. — CIRCULAR    TEMPLE.        TIVOLI. 


ROMAN   ARCHITECTURE.  QI 

and  amphitheatres,  called  for  new  adaptations  and  combinations 
of  planning  and  engineering.  The  reign  of  Augustus  (27  B.C.- 
14  A.D.)  inaugurated  the  imperial  epoch,  but  many  works  erected 
before  and  after  his  reign  properly  belong  to  the  Augustan  age  by 
right  of  style.  In  general,  we  find  in  the  works  of  this  period  the 
happiest  combination  of  Greek  refinement  with  Roman  splendor. 
It  was  in  this  period  that  Rome  first  assumed  the  aspect  of  an  opu- 
lent and  splendid  metropolis,  though  the  way  had  been  prepared 
for  this  by  the  regularization  and  adornment  of  the  Roman  Forum 
and  the  erection  op  many  temples,  basilicas,  fora,  arches,  and 
theatres  during  the  generation  preceding  the  accession  of  Augus- 
tus. His  reign  saw  the  inception  or  completion  of  the  portico  of 
Octavia,  the  Augustan  forum,  the  Septa  Julia,  the  first  Pantheon, 
the  adjoining  Thermae  of  Agrippa,  the  theatre  of  Marcellus,  the 
first  of  the  imperial  palaces  on  the  Palatine,  and  a  long  list  of 
temples,  including  those  of  the  Dioscuri  (Castor  and  Pollux), 
of  Mars  Ultor,of  Jupiter  Tonans  on  the  Capitol,  and  others  in  the 
provinces;  besides  colonnades,  statues,  arches,  and  other  embel- 
lishments almost  without  number. 

LATER  IMPERIAL  WORKS.  With  the  successors  of  Augustus 
splendor  increased  to  almost  fabulous  limits,  as,  for  instance,  in 
the  vast  extent  and  the  prodigality  of  ivory  and  gold  in  the  famous 
Golden  House  of  Nero.  After  the  great  fire  in  Rome,  presumably 
kindled  by  the  agents  of  this  emperor,  a  more  regular  and  monu- 
mental system  of  street-planning  and  building  was  introduced, 
and  the  first  municipal  building-law  was  decreed  by  him.  To 
the  reign  of  Vespasian  (68-79  A.D.)  we  owe  the  rebuilding  in 
Roman  style  and  with  the  Corinthian  order  of  the  temple  of  Jupi- 
ter Capitolinus,  the  Baths  of  Titus,  and  the  beginning  of  the 
Flavian  amphitheatre  or  Colosseum.  The  two  last-named  edi- 
fices both  stood  on  the  site  of  Nero's  ( Jolden  House,  of  which  the 
greater  part  was  demolished  to  make  way  for  them.  During  the 
last  years  of  the  first  century  the  Arch  of  Titus  was  erected,  the 
Colosseum  finished,  amphitheatres  built  at  Verona,  Pola,  Reggio, 


92  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

Tusculum,  Nimes  (France),  Constantine  (Algiers),  Pompeii  and 
Herculanum  (these  last  two  cities  and  Stabice  rebuilt  after  the 
earthquake  of  63  A.D.),  and  arches,  bridges,  and  temples  erected 
all  over  the  Roman  world. 

The  first  part  of  the  second  century  was  distinguished  by  the 
splendid  architectural  achievements  of  the  reigns  of  Trajan  (98- 
117)  and  Hadrian  (117-138  A.D.)-  The  works  of  this  great  age 
were  marked  by  great  dignity  of  conception  as  well  as  beauty  of 
detail;  they  include  the  Forum  and  Basilica  of  Trajan  and  the 
Pantheon,  besides  many  splendid  works  in  the  provinces.  Dur- 
ing the  latter  part  of  the  century  a  very  interesting  series  of  build- 
ings were  erected  in  the  Hauran  (Syria),  in  which  Greek  and 
Syrian  workmen  under  Roman  direction  produced  examples  of 
vigorous  stone  architecture  of  a  mingled  Roman  and  Syrian  char- 
acter. 

The  most  remarkable  thermae  of  Rome  belong  to  the  third  cen- 
tury— those  of  Caracalla  (211-217  A.D.)  and  of  Diocletian  (284- 
305  A.D.) — their  ruins  to-day  ranking  among  the  most  imposing 
remains  of  antiquity.  In  Syria  the  temples  of  the  Sun  at  Baalbec 
and  Palmyra  (273  A.D.,  under  Aurelian),  and  the  great  palace  of 
Diocletian  at  Spalato,  in  Dalmatia  (300  A.D.),  are  still  the  wonder 
of  the  few  travellers  who  reach  those  distant  spots. 

While  during  the  third  and  fourth  centuries  there  was  a  marked 
decline  in  purity  and  refinement  of  detail,  many  of  the  later 
works  of  the  period  display  a  remarkable  freedom  and  originality 
in  conception.  But  these  works  are  really  not  Roman,  they  are 
foreign,  that  is,  provincial  products;  and  the  transfer  of  the  capi- 
tal to  Byzantium  revealed  the  increasing  degree  in  which  Rome 
was  coming  to  look  to  the  East  for  her  strength  and  her  art. 

TEMPLES.  The  Romans  built  both  rectangular  and  circular 
temples,  and  there  was  much  variety  in  their  treatment.  In  the 
rectangular  temples  a  high  podium,  or  basement,  was  substituted 
for  the  Greek  stepped  stylobate,  and  the  prostyle  plan  was  more 
common  than  the  peripteral.  The  cella  was  relatively  short  and 


ROMAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


93 


wide,  the  front  porch  inordinately  deep,  and  sometimes  divided  by 
longitudinal  rows  of  columns  into  three  aisles.  In  most  cases  the 
exterior  of  the  cella  in  prostyle  temples  was  decorated  by  engaged 
columns.  A  barrel  vault  gave  the  interior  an  aspect  of  spacious- 
ness impossible  with 
the  Greek  system  of  a 
wooden  ceiling  support- 
ed on  double  ranges 
of  columns.  In  the 
place  of  these,  free  or 
engaged  columns  along 
the  side-walls  received 
the  ribs  of  the  vaulting. 
Between  these  ribs  the 
ceiling  was  richly  pan- 
elled, or  collered  and 
sumptuously  gilded. 
The  temples  of  For- 
tuna  Virilis  (Fig.  51) 
and  of  Faustina  at 
Rome  (the  latter  built 
141  A.D.,  and  its  ruins 
incorporated  into  the 
modern  church  of  S. 
Lorenzo  in  Miranda), 
and  the  beautiful  and 
admirably  preserved 
Maison  Carree,  at 

Nimes  (France;  4  A.IX),  are  examples  of  this  type.  In  the 
temples  of  Concord,  Julius,  and  Vespasian,  all  in  the  Forum, 
the  porch  was  on  the  long  side  of  the  cella.  Some  of  the  larger 
temples  were  peripteral.  The  temple  of  the  Dioscuri  (Castor 
and  Pollux)  in  the  Forum,  was  one  of  the  most  magnificent  of 
these,  certainly  the  richest  in  detail  (Fig.  44).  Very  remarkable 


FIG.    53.  —  TEMPLE   OF    VENUS   AND    ROME.      PLAN. 


94 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


was  the  double  temple  of  Venus  and  Rome,  east  of  the  Forum, 
built  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian  about  130  A.D.  (Fig.  53),  a  vast 
pseudodipteral  edifice  with  two  cellas  meeting  back  to  back  in 
the  center.  The  temple  stood  in  the  midst  of  an  imposing 
columnar  peribolus  entered  by  magnificent  gateways.  Other  im- 
portant temples  have  already  been  mentioned. 

Besides  the  two  circular  temples  already  described,  the  temple 
of  Vesta,  adjoining  the  House  of  the  Vestals,  at  the  east  end  of  the 
Forum,  should  be  mentioned.  At  Baalbec  is  a  circular  temple 
whose  entablature  curves  inward  between  the  widely-spaced  col- 
umns until  it  touches  the  cella  in  the  middle  of  each  inter-colum- 
niation.  It  illustrates  the  caprices  of  design  which  sometimes 
resulted  from  the  disregard  of  tradition  and  the  striving  after 
originality  (273  A.D.). 

THE  PANTHEON.  The  noblest  of  all  circular  temples  of 
Rome  and  of  the  world  was  the  Pantheon.  It  was  built  by 

Hadrian,  117-138  A.D.,  on  the  site  of 
the  earlier  rectangular  temple  of  the 
same  name  erected  by  Agrippa.  It 
measures  142  feet  in  diameter  inter- 
nally; the  wall  is  20  feet  thick  and 
supports  a  hemispherical  dome  rising 
to  a  height  of  140  feet  (Figs.  54,55)- 
Light  is  admitted  solely  through  a 
round  opening  28  feet  in  diameter  at 
the  top  of  the  dome,  the  simplest  and 
most  impressive  method  of  illumina- 
tion conceivable.  The  rain  and  snow 
that  enter  produce  no  appreciable 
effect  upon  the  temperature  of  the 
vast  hall.  There  is  a  single  entrance, 
with  noble  bronze  doors,  admitting  directly  to  the  interior, 
around  which  seven  niches,  alternately  rectangular  and  semi- 
circular in  plan  and  fronted  by  Corinthian  columns,  lighten, 


PIG.    54.  —  PLAN    OF    THE    PAN- 
THKON. 


ROMAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


95 


without  weakening,  the  mass  of  the  encircling  wall.  This  wall 
was  originally  incrusted  with  rich  marbles,  and  the  great  dome, 
adorned  with  deep  coffering  in  rectangular  panels,  was  decorated 
with  rosettes  and  mould- 
ings in  gilt  stucco.  The 
dome  appears  to  consist 
of  a  shell  of  brick  with 
numerous  arches  and 
ribs  covered  with  a 
heavier  external  shell 
of  concrete.  The  in- 
terior panelling  appears 
to  the  writer  to  have 
been  hewn  out  of  the 
mass  of  the  brick  vault 
regardless  of  the  ribs 
and  arches  in  its 
structure. 

The  exterior  (Fig.  56) 
was  less  successful 
than  the  interior.  The 

gabled  porch  of  twelve  superb  granite  columns  50  feet  high, 
three-aisled  in  plan  after  the  Etruscan  mode,  and  covered  origi- 
nally by  a  ceiling  of  bronze,  was  a  rebuilding  with  the  materials 
and  on  the  plan  of  the  original  pronaos  of  the  Pantheon  of 
Agrippa.  The  circular  wall  behind  it  is  faced  with  fine  brick- 
work, and  displays,  like  the  dome,  many  curious  arrangements  of 
discharging  arches,  reminiscences  of  traditional  constructive 
precautions  here  wholly  useless  and  fictitious  because  only  skin- 
deep.  A  revetement  of  marble  below  and  plaster  above  once  con- 
cealed this  brick  facing.  The  portico,  in  spite  of  its  too  steep 
gable  (once  filled  with  a  "  gigantomachia "  in  gilt  bronxe)  and  its 
somewhat  awkward  association  with  a  round  building,  is  never- 
theless a  noble  work,  its  capitals  in  Pentelic  marble  ranking 


FIG.    55. — INTERIOR    OF    THE    PANTHEON. 


96 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


among  the  finest  known  examples  of  the  Roman  Corinthian. 
Taken  as  a  whole,  the  Pantheon  is  one  of  the  great  masterpieces 
of  the  world's  architecture. 

FORA  AND  BASILICAS.  The  fora  were  the  places  for  gen- 
eral public  assemblage.  The  chief  of  those  in  Rome,  the  Forum 
Magnum,  or  Forum  Romanum,  was  at  first  merely  an  irreg- 


FIG.  56. — EXTERIOR  OF  THE  PANTHEON. 

(From  model  in  Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York.) 

ular  vacant  space,  about  and  in  which,  as  the  focus  of  the  civic 
life,  temples,  halls,  colonnades,  and  statues  gradually  accumu- 
lated. These  chance  aggregations  the  systematic  Roman  mind 
reduced  in  time  to  orderly  and  monumental  form;  successive  em- 
perors extended  them  and  added  new  fora  at  enormous  cost  and 
with  great  splendor  of  architecture.  Those  of  Julius,  Augustus, 
Vespasian,  and  Nerva  (or  Domitian),  adjoining  the  Roman 
Forum,  were  magnificent  enclosures  surrounded  by  high  walls 
and  single  or  double  colonnades.  Each  contained  a  temple  or 
basilica,  besides  gateways,  memorial  columns  or  arches,  and 
countless  statues.  The  Forum  of  Trajan  surpassed  all  the 


ROMAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


97 


rest;  it  covered  an  area  of  thirty-five  thousand  square  yards,  and 
included,  besides  the  main  area,  entered  through  a  triumphal 
arch,  the  Basilica  Ulpia,  the  temple  of  Trajan,  and  his  colossal 
Doric  column  of  Victory.  Both  in  size  and  beauty  it  ranked  as 
the  chief  architectural  glory  of  the  city  (Fig.  57).  The  six  fora 
together  contained  thir- 
teen temples,  three  ba- 
silicas, eight  triumphal 
arches,  a  mile  of  por- 
ticos, and  a  number  of 
other  public  edifices.* 
Besides  these,  a  net- 
work of  colonnades  cov- 
ered large  tracts  of  the 
city,  affording  sheltered 
communication  in  every 
direction,  and  here  and 
there  expanding  into 
squares  or  gardens  sur- 
rounded by  peristyles. 

The    public    business  ^1 


fl*"*\1'l — t*****i 

C.  COLUMN  or  ^A  JAM 

L.L.    LlBRAK.CS 
PEFISTWE  Of  FbRUM 


ABCHOFthAJAN 


FIG.    57.  — FORl'M    AND    BASILICA    OF    TRAJAN. 


of  Rome,  both  judicial 
and  commercial,  was 
largely  transacted  in  the 
basilicas,  large  buildings  consisting  usually  of  a  wide  and  lofty 
central  nave  flanked  by  lower  side-aisles,  and  terminating  at 
one  or  both  ends  in  an  apse  or  semicircular  recess  called  the 
tribune,  in  which  were  the  seats  for  the  magistrates.  The  side- 
aisles  were  separated  from  the  nave  by  columns  supporting  a 
clearstory  wall,  pierced  by  windows  above  the  roofs  of  the  side- 
aisles.  In  some  cases  the  latter  were  two  stories  high,  with 
galleries;  in  others  the  central  space  was  open  to  the  sky,  as  at 

*  Lanciani :  Ancient  Rome  in  the  Light  of  Recent  Discoveries, 
p.  89. 


98  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

Pompeii,  suggesting  the  derivation  of  the  basilica  from  the  open 
square  surrounded  by  colonnades,  or  from  the  forum  itself, 
with  which  we  find  it  usually  associated.  The  most  important 
basilicas  in  Rome  were  the  Sempronian,  the  JEmilian  (about 
54  B.C.),  the  Julian  in  the  Forum  Magnum  (51  B.C.),  and  the 
Ulpian  in  the  Forum  of  Trajan  (113  A.D.).  The  last  two  were 
probably  open  basilicas,  only  the  side-aisles  being  roofed.  The 
Ulpian  (Fig.  57)  was  the  most  magnificent  of  all,  and  in  con- 
junction with  the  Forum  of  Trajan  formed  one  of  the  most  im- 
posing of  those  monumental  aggregations  of  columnar  architec- 
ture which  contributed  so  largely  to 
the  splendor  of  the  Roman  capital. 

These  monuments  frequently  suffered 
from  the  burning  of  their  wooden  roofs. 
It  was  Constantine  who  completed  the 
first  vaulted  and  fireproof  basilica,  be- 
gun by  his  predecessor  and  rival,  Max- 
entius,  on  the  site  of  the  former  Temple 

FIG.    58.— BASILICA   OF   CON-  , 

STANTINE.    PLAN.  of  Peace  (Figs.  58,  59) .     Itsdesignrc- 

produced  on  a  grand  scale  the  plan  of 

the  tepidarium-halls  of  the  thenruT,  the  side-recesses  of  which 
were  converted  into  a  continuous  side-aisle  by  piercing  arches 
through  the  buttress-walls  that  separated  them.  Above  the  im- 
posing vaults  of  these  recesses  and  under  the  cross-vaults  of  the 
nave  were  windows  admitting  abundant  light.  A  narthc.v,  or 
porch,  preceded  the  hall  at  one  end;  there  were  also  a  side  en- 
trance from  the  Via  Sacra,  and  an  apse  or  tribune  for  the  magis- 
trates opposite  each  of  these  entrances.  The  dimensions  of  the 
main  hall  (325X85  feet),  the  height  of  its  vault  (117  feet),  and 
the  splendor  of  its  columns  and  incrustations  excited  univer- 
sal admiration,  and  exercised  a  powerful  influence  on  later 
architecture. 

THERMS.      The  leisure  of   the    Roman    people  was  largely 
spent  in  the  great  baths,  or  lliernni',  which  took  the  place  substan- 


ROMAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


99 


tially  of  the  modern  club.  The  establishments  erected  by  the 
emperors  for  this  purpose  were  vast  and  complex  congeries  of 
large  and  small  halls,  courts,  and  chambers,  combined  with  a 
masterly  comprehension  of  artistic  propriety  and  effect  in  the  se- 
quence of  oblong,  square,  oval,  and  circular  apartments,  and  in 
the  relation  of  the  greater  to  the  lesser  masses.  They  were  a  com- 


PIG.    59.    BASILICA    OP    CONSTANTIN'E.      RUIN'S. 

bination  of  the  Greek  pahrstra  with  the  Roman  balnea,  and  united 
in  one  harmonious  design  great  public  swimming-baths,  private 
baths  for  individuals  and  families,  places  for  gymnastic  exercises 
and  games,  courts,  peristyles,  gardens,  halls  for  literary  entertain- 
ments, lounging-rooms,  and  all  the  complex  accommodation  re- 
quired for  the  service  of  the  whole  establishment.  They  were 
built  with  apparent  disregard  of  cost,  and  adorned  with  splendid 
extravagance.  The  earliest  were  the  Baths  of  Agrippa  (27 
B.C.)  behind  the  Pantheon;  next  may  be  mentioned  those  of 
Titus,  built  on  the  substructions  of  Nero's  Golden  House.  The 


100  HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

remains  of  the  Thermae  of  Caracalla  (211  A.D.)  form  the 
most  extensive  mass  of  ruins  in  Rome,  and  clearly  display  the  ad- 
mirable planning  of  this  and  similar  establishments.  A  gigantic 
block  of  buildings  containing  the  three  great  halls  for  cold,  warm, 
and  hot  baths,  stood  in  the  centre  of  a  vast  enclosure  surrounded 
by  private  baths,  cxcdra,  and  halls  for  lecture-audiences  and  other 
gatherings.  The  enclosure  was  adorned  with  statues,  flower- 

gardens,   and  places    for 

A  ^  out-door    games.        The 

:  Baths  of  Diocletian  (302 

-e      A.D.)    embodied  this  ar- 


rangement on  a  still  more 
extensive  scale;  they 
could  accommodate  3,500 
bathers  at  once,  and  their 
ruins  cover  a  broad  terri- 
FIG.  60.—  THERM/E  OP  CARACALLA.  PLAN  OP  torv  near  the  railway  ter- 

CENTRAL    BLOCK.  '        * 

A  ,  Caldariu,,,,  or  Hot  Bath:  B,  Intermediate  minUS  °f  the  modem  City. 

Chamber:  C,  Tepidarium,  or  Warm  Bath;  D,  TllC  dlUrcll  of  S.  Maria 
Frigidarium,  or  Cold  Bath:  E,  Peristyles; 

a,    Gymnastic   Rooms;    6,    Dressing    Kooms;    c,  degll    Angell    was   formed 

Cooling  Rooms;  d,  Small  Courts;  ,,  Entrance*;  ]  Michael  Angelo  Ollt  of 
v,  Vestibules.  J 

the  tepidarium  of    these 

baths  —  a  colossal  hall  340X87  feet,  and  90  feet  high.  The  orig- 
inal vaulting  and  columns  are  still  intact,  and  the  whole  interior 
most  imposing,  in  spite  of  later  stucco  disfigurements.  The 
circular  laconicum  (sweat-room)  serves  as  the  porch  to  the  present 
church.  It  was  in  the  building  of  these  great  halls  that  Roman 
architecture  reached  its  most  original  and  characteristic  expres- 
sion. Wholly  unrelated  to  any  foreign  model,  they  represent 
distinctively  Roman  ideals,  both  as  to  plan  and  construction. 

PLACES  OF  AMUSEMENT.  The  earliest  Roman  theatres 
differed  from  the  Greek  in  having  a  nearly  semicircular  plan,  and 
in  being  built  up  from  the  level  ground,  not  excavated  in  a  hill- 
side (Fig.  61).  The  first  theatre  was  of  wood,  built  by  Mummius 


ROMAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


101 


145  B.C.,  and  it  was  not  until  ninety  years  later  that  stone  was  first 
substituted  for  the  more  perishable  material,  in  the  theatre  of 
Pompey.  The  Theatre  of  Marcellus  (23-13  B.C.)  is  in  part 
still  extant,  and  later  theatres  in  Pompeii,  Orange  (France),  and 
in  the  Asiatic  provinces  are  in  excellent  preservation.  The  or- 
chestra was  not,  as  in  the  Greek  theatre,  reserved  for  the  choral 
dance,  but  was  given  up  to  spectators  of  rank;  the  stage  was 
adorned  with  a  permanent  architectural  background  of  columns 
and  arches,  and  sometimes  roofed  with  wood,  and  an  arcade  or 
colonnade  surrounded  the 
upper  tier  of  seats.  The 
amphitheatre  was  a  still 
more  distinctively  Roman 
edifice.  It  was  elliptical 
in  plan,  surrounding  an 
elliptical  arena,  and  built 
up  with  continuous  en- 
circling tiers  of  seats. 
The  earliest  stone  amphi- 
theatre was  erected  by 
Statilius  Taurus  in  the 

time  of  Augustus.  It  was  practically  identical  in  design  with 
the  later  and  much  larger  Flavian  amphitheatre,  commonly 
known  as  the  Colosseum,  begun  by  Vespasian  and  completed 
82  A.D.  (Fig.  62).  This  immense  structure  measured  607  X  506 
feet  in  plan  and  was  180  feet  high;  it  could  accommodate  eighty- 
seven  thousand  spectators.  Engaged  columns  of  the  Tuscan, 
Ionic,  and  Corinthian  orders  decorated  three  stories  of  the  ex- 
terior; the  fourth  was  a  nearly  unbroken  wall  with  slender  Co- 
rinthian pilasters.  Solidly  constructed  of  travertine,  concrete, 
and  tufa,  the  Colosseum,  with  its  imposing  but  monotonous 
exterior,  almost  sublime  by  its  scale  and  seemingly  endless 
repetition,  but  lacking  in  refinement  or  originality  of  detail  and 
dedicated  to  bloody  and  cruel  sports,  was  a  characteristic  product 


FIG.  6l. ROMAN  THEATRE.      (HERCULANUM.) 

(From  model.) 


IO2 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


of  the  Roman  character  and  civilization.  At  Verona,  Pola, 
Capua,  and  many  cities  in  the  foreign  provinces  there  are  well- 
preserved  remains  of  similar  structures. 

Closely  related  to  the  amphitheatre  were  the  circus  and  the 
stadium.  The  Circus  Maximus  between  the  Palatine  and 
Aventine  hills  was  the  oldest  of  those  in  Rome.  That  erected 
by  Caligula  and  Nero  on  the  site  afterward  partly  occupied  by  St. 
Peter's,  was  more  splendid,  and  is  said  to  have  been  capable  of 


FIG.    62. COLOSSKUM.       HALF    PLAN. 

accommodating  over  three  hundred  thousand  spectators  after  its 
enlargement  in  the  fourth  century.  The  long,  narrow  race-course 
was  divided  into  two  nearly  equal  parts  by  a  low  parapet,  the 
spina,  on  which  were  the  goals  (mct(c)  and  many  small  decorative 
structures  and  columns.  ( )ne  end  of  the  circus,  as  of  the  stadium 
also,  was  semicircular;  the  other  was  segmcntal  in  the  circus, 
square  in  the  stadium;  a  colonnade  or  arcade  ran  along  the  top 
of  the  building,  and  the  entrances  and  exits  were  adorned  with 
monumental  arches. 

TRIUMPHAL  ARCHES  AND  COLUMNS.  Rome  and  the 
provincial  cities  abounded  in  monuments  commemorative  of 
victory,  usually  single  or  triple  arches  with  engaged  columns  and 


ROMAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


103 


rich  sculptural  adornments,  or  single  colossal  columns  supporting 
statues.  The  arches  were  characteristic  products  of  Roman 
design,  and  some  of  them  deserve  high  praise  for  the  excellence  of 
their  proportions  and  elegance  of  their  details.  There  were  in 
Rome  in  the  second  century  A.D.,  thirty-eight  of  these  monu- 
ments. The  Arch  of  Titus  (71-82  A.D.)  is  the  simplest  and 
most  perfect  of  those  still  extant  in  Rome;  the  arch  of  Septimius 
Severus  in  the  Forum  (203  A.D.)  and  that  of  Constantine  (330 
A.D.)  near  the  Colosseum, 
are  more  sumptuous  but 
less  pure  in  detail.  The 
last-named  was  in  part 
enriched  with  sculptures 
taken  from  the  earlier 
arch  of  Trajan.  The 
statues  of  Dacian  captives 
on  the  attic  (attic  =  a. 
species  of  subordinate 
story  added  abov'e  the 
main  cornice)  of  this  arch 
were  a  fortunate  addition, 
furnishing  a  raison  d'etre 
for  the  columns  and  broken  entablatures  on  which  they  rest. 
Memorial  columns  of  colossal  size  were  erected  by  several  em- 
perors, both  in  Rome  and  abroad.  Those  of  Trajan  and  of 
Marcus  Aurelius  arc  still  standing  in  Rome  in  perfect  pres- 
ervation. The  first  was  140  feet  high  including  the  pedestal 
and  the  statue  which  surmounted  it;  its  capital  marked  the 
height  of  the  ridge  levelled  by  the  emperor  for  the  forum 
on  which  the  column  stands.  Its  most  striking  peculiar- 
ity is  the  spiral  band  of  reliefs  winding  around  the  shaft 
from  bottom  to  top  and  representing  the  Dacian  campaigns 
of  Trajan.  The  other  column  is  of  similar  design  and 
dimensions,  but  greatly  inferior  to  the  first  in  execution. 


FIG.    63. —  ARCH    OF    CONSTANTINE. 

(From  model  in  Metropolitan  Museum, 
New  York.) 


IO4  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

Both  are  really  towers,  with  interior  stair-cases  leading  to  the 
top. 

TOMBS.  The  Romans  developed  no  special  and  national  type 
of  tomb,  and  few  of  their  sepulchral  monuments  were  of  large 
dimensions.  The  most  important  in  Rome  were  the  pyramid 
of  Caius  Cestius  (late  first  century  B.C.),  and  the  circular  tombs 
of  Cecilia  Matella  (60  B.C.),  Augustus  (14  A.D.)  and  Hadrian, 
now  the  Castle  of  S.  Angelo  (138  A.D.).  The  latter  was  composed 
of  a  huge  cone  of  marble  supported  on  a  cylindrical  structure  230 
feet  in  diameter  standing  on  a  square  podium  300  feet  long  and 
wide.  The  cone  probably  once  terminated  in  the  gilt  bronze 
pine-cone  now  in  the  Giardino  della  Pigna  of  the  Vatican.  In 
the  Mausoleum  of  Augustus  a  mound  of  earth  planted  with  trees 
crowned  a  similar  circular  base  of  marble  on  a  podium  220  feet 
square,  now  buried. 

The  smaller  tombs  varied  greatly  in  size  and  form.  Some  were 
vaulted  chambers,  with  graceful  internal  painted  decorations  of 
figures  and  vine  patterns  combined  with  low-relief  enrichments  in 
stucco.  Others  were  designed  in  the  form  of  altars  or  sarcophagi, 
as  at  Pompeii;  while  others  again  resembled  axlicuke,  little  tem- 
ples, shrines,  or  small  towers  in  several  stories  of  arches  and  col- 
umns, as  at  St.  Remy  (France). 

PALACES  AND  DWELLINGS.  Into  their  dwellings  the  Ro- 
mans carried  all  their  love  of  ostentation  and  personal  luxury. 
They  anticipated  in  many  details  the  comforts  of  modern  civiliza- 
tion in  their  furniture,  their  plumbing  and  heating,  and  their 
utensils.  Their  houses  may  be  divided  into  four  classes:  the 
palace,  the  villa,  the  donuts  or  ordinary  house,  and  the  insula  or 
many-storied  tenement  built  in  compact  blocks.  The  first  three 
alone  concern  us,  and  will  be  taken  up  in  the  above  order. 

The  imperial  palaces  on  the  Palatine  Hill  comprised  a  wide 
range  in  style  and  variety  of  buildings,  beginning  with  the  first 
simple  house  of  Augustus  (26  B.C.),  burnt  and  rebuilt  3  A.u.  Ti- 
berius, Caligula,  and  Nero  added  to  the  Augustan  group;  Domi- 


ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


105 


tian  rebuilt  a  second  time  and  enlarged  the  palace  of  Augustus, 
and  Septimius  Severus  remodelled  the  whole  group,  adding  to  it 
his  own  extraordinary  seven-storied  palace,  the  Septizonium. 
The  ruins  of  these  successive  buildings  have  been  carefully  ex- 
cavated, and  reveal  a  remarkable  combination  of  dwelling-rooms, 
courts,  temples,  libraries,  basilicas,  baths,  gardens,  peristyles, 
fountains,  terraces,  and  covered  passages.  These  were  adorned 
with  a  profusion  of  pre- 
cious marbles,  mosaics,  Q  ("I  O  Q  Fl 

i  ,  1-J.lli.Llllii.l.I-M    H-liiiiii-Tl 

columns,  and   statues. 

Parts  of  the  demolished 
palace  of  Nero  were  in- 
corporated in  the  sub- 
structions of  the  Baths 
of  Titus.  The  beautiful 
arabesques  and  plaster 
reliefs  which  adorned 
them  were  the  inspiration 
of  much  of  the  fresco  and 
stucco  decoration  of  the 
Italian  Renaissance.  At 
Spalato,  in  Dalmatia,  are 
the  extensive  ruins  of  the 
great  Palace  of  Diocle- 
tian, which  was  laid  out 

on  the  plan  of  a  Roman  camp,  with  two  intersecting  avenues 
(Fig.  64).  It  comprised  a  temple,  mausoleum,  basilica,  and 
other  structures  besides  those  portions  devoted  to  the  purposes 
of  a  royal  residence. 

The  villa  was  in  reality  a  country  palace,  arranged  with  special 
reference  to  the  prevailing  winds,  exposure  to  the  sun  and  shade, 
and  the  enjoyment  of  a  wide  prospect.  Baths,  temples,  c.\rdrti', 
theatres,  tennis-courts,  sun-rooms,  and  shaded  porticos  were 
connected  with  the  house  proper,  which  was  built  around  two  or 


FIG.  64. PALACE  OF  DIOCLETIAN.   SPALATO. 


io6 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


fiortus  or  Garden 
* ' '  V< 


three  interior  courts  or  peristyles.  Statues,  fountains,  and  colos- 
sal vases  of  marble  adorned  the  grounds,  which  were  laid  out  in 
terraces  and  treated  with  all  the  fantastic  arts  of  the  Roman  land- 
scape-gardener. The  most  elaborate  and  extensive  villa  was 

that  of  Hadrian,  at  Tibur 
(Tivoli);  its  ruins,  covering 
hundreds  of  acres,  form  one 
of  the  most  interesting  spots 
to  visit  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Rome. 

There  are  few  remains  in 
Rome  of  the  domus  or  pri- 
vate house.  Two,  howrever, 
have  left  remarkably  inter- 
esting ruins — the  Atrium 
Vestae,  or  House  of  the 
Vestal  Virgins,  east  of  the 
Forum,  a  well-planned  and 
extensive  house  surrounding 
a  cloister  or  court;  and  the 
House  of  Livia,or  Gcrmani- 
cus,  so-called,  on  the  Palatine 
Hill,  the  walls  and  decora- 
tions of  which  are  excellently 
preserved.  The  typical 
Roman  house  in  a  provincial 

s,  SAflfts:  v,  Vestibule;  f,  Family  Rooms;        town     js     ]>est     illustrated     by 
k,   Kitchen;   /,  Lararium;  P,  P,  /'    Pert-  .  .. 

styles.  the    ruins    of    Pompeii    and 

Herculanum,   which,   buried 

by  an  eruption  of  Vesuvius  in  79  A.D.,  have  been  partially 
excavated  since  1721.  The  Pompeiian  house  (Fig.  65)  con- 
sisted of  several  courts  or  atria,  some  of  which  were  sur- 
rounded by  colonnades  and  called  peristyles.  The  front  portion 
was  reserved  for  shops,  or  presented  to  the  street  a  wall  unbroken 


FIG.    65. HOUSE    OF    PANSA,    POMPEII. 


ROMAN   ARCHITECTURE.  IO7 

save  by  the  entrance;  all  the  rooms  and  chambers  opened  upon 
the  interior  courts,  from  which  alone  they  borrowed  their  light. 
In  the  brilliant  climate  of  southern  Italy  windows  were  little 
needed,  as  sufficient  light  was  admitted  by  the  door,  closed  only 
by  portieres  for  the  most  part;  especially  as  the  family  life  was 
passed  mainly  in  the  shaded  courts,  to  which  fountains,  parterres 
of  shrubbery,  statues,  and  other  adornments  lent  their  inviting 
charm.  The  general  plan  of  these  houses  seems  to  have  been  of 
Greek  origin,  as  well  as  the  system  of  decoration  used  on  the 
walls.  These,  when  not  wainscoted  with  marble,  were  covered 
with  fantastic,  but  often  artistic,  painted  decorations,  in  which  an 
imaginary  architecture  as  of  metal,  a  fantastic  and  arbitrary  per- 
spective, illusory  pictures,  and  highly  finished  figures  were  the 
chief  elements.  These  were  executed  in  brilliant  colors  with  ex- 
cellent effect.  The  houses  were  lightly  built,  with  wooden  ceilings 
and  roofs  instead  of  vaulting,  and  usually  with  but  one  story 
on  account  of  the  danger  from  earthquakes.  That  the  workman- 
ship and  decoration  were  in  the  capital  often  superior  to  what  was 
to  be  found  in  a  provincial  town  like  Pompeii,  is  evidenced  by 
beautiful  wall-paintings  and  reliefs  discovered  in  Rome  in  1879 
and  now  preserved  in  the  Museo  delle  Terme.  More  or  less 
fragmentary  remains  of  Roman  houses  have  been  found  in  almost 
every  corner  of  the  Roman  empire,  but  nowhere  exhibiting  as 
completely  as  in  Pompeii  the  typical  Roman  arrangement. 

WORKS  OF  UTILITY.  A  word  should  be  said  about  Roman 
engineering  works,  which  in  many  cases  were  designed  with  an 
artistic  sense  of  proportion  and  form  which  raises  them  into  the 
domain  of  genuine  art.  Such  were  especially  the  bridges,  in 
which  a  remarkable  effect  of  monumental  grandeur  was  often 
produced  by  the  form  and  proportions  of  the  arches  and  piers, 
and  an  appropriate  use  of  rough  and  dressed  masonry,  as  in  the 
Pons  /Elius  (Ponte  S.  Angelo),  the  great  bridge  at  Alcantara 
(Spain),  and  the  Pont  du  Gard,  near  Nimes,  in  southern  Trance. 
The  aqueducts  are  impressive  ra,ther  by  their  length,  scale,  and 


108  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

simplicity,  than  by  any  special  refinements  of  design,  except 
where  their  arches  are  treated  with  some  architectural  decor- 
ation to  form  gates,  as  in  the  Porta  Maggiore,  at  Rome. 

PROVINCIAL  WORKS.  Besides  the  temples,  theatres,  baths, 
palaces,  tombs  and  bridges  already  enumerated,  in  Palmyra, 
Baalbec,  Nimes,  Orange,  Reims,  St.  Remy,  Alcantara,  etc.,  men- 
tion must  be  made  of  the  extensive  works  of  Roman  architecture 
in  northern  Africa,  especially  in  Algiers,  at  Timgad,  Orleans- 
ville,  El-Djem,  Sbeitla,  Lambessa  and  Tebessa;  in  Syria  at 
Gerasa  and  in  the  necropolis  of  Petra;  of  city  gates  at  Autun 
(France)  and  Treves  (Germany,  the  Porta  Nigra);  of  villas 
throughout  northern  Europe,  including  many  in  England  (e.g.  at 
Silchester);  and  the  great  Egyptian  temples  built  under  the 
Roman  dominion  (Esneh,  Philae,  Kardassy,  etc.;  see  ante  p.  22). 
In  Paris  are  still  preserved  the  remains  of  the  palace  and  baths  of 
Julian.  Asia  Minor  abounds  in  splendid  Greco-Roman  theatres, 
temples  and  other  ruins. 

MONUMENTS.  (Those  which  have  no  important  extant  remains 
are  given  in  italics).  TEMPLES:  Jupiter  Capitolinus,  600  B.C.;  Ceres, 
Liber,  and  Liber  a,  494  B.C.  (ruins  of  later  rebuilding  in  S.  Maria  in 
Cosmedin)  ;  first  T.  of  Concord  (rebuilt  in  Augustan  age),  254  B.C.; 
first  marble  temple  in  portico  of  Mctcllus,  by  a  Greek,  Hcrmodorus, 
143  B.C.  ;  temples  of  Fortune  at  Praeneste  and  at  Rome,  and  of 
Vesta  at  Rome,  83-78  B.C.;  of  Vesta  at  Tivoli,  and  of  Hercules 
at  Cori,  72  B.C.  ;  first  Pantheon,  27  B.C.  In  Augustan  Age  tem- 
ples of  Apollo,  Concord  rebuilt,  Dioscuri,  Julius,  Jupiter  Stator, 
Jupiter  Tonans,  Mars  Ultor,  Minerva  (at  Rome  and  Assisi),  Maison 
Carree  at  Nimes,  Saturn;  at  Puteoli,  Pola,  etc.  T.  of  Peace;  T. 
Jupiter  Capitolinus,  rebuilt  70  A.D.  ;  temple  at  Brescia.  Temple  of 
Vespasian,  96  A.D.  ;  also  of  Mincrra  in  Forum  of  Nerva  ;  of  Trajan, 
117  A.D.;  second  Pantheon;  T.  of  Venus  and  Rome  at  Rome,  and 
of  Jupiter  Olympus  at  Athens,  135-138  A.D.  ;  Faustina,  M1  A.D.  ; 
many  in  Syria;  temples  of  Sun  at  Rome,  Baalbec,  and  Palmyra, 
cir.  273  A.U.  ;  of  Romulus,  305  A.D.  (porch  S.  Cosmo  and  Damiano). 
PLACES  OF  ASSEMBLY:  FORA — Roman,  Julian,  46  B.C.;  Augustan,  40- 
42  B.C.;  of  Peace,  75  A.U.  ;  Nerva,  97  A.U.  ;  Trajan  (by  Apollodorus 


ROMAN   ARCHITECTURE.  109 

of  Damascus,  117  A.D.  BASILICAS:  Sempronian,  J'.milian,  1st  cen- 
tury B.C.  ;  Julian,  51  B.C.;  Septa  Julia,  26  H.C.  ;  the  Curia,  later  rebuilt 
by  Diocletian,  300  A.D.  (now  Church  of  S.  Adriano)  ;  at  1'atio,  20 
A.D.  (?);  Forum  and  Basilica  at  Pompeii,  60  A.D.  ;  of  Trajan;  of 
Constantino,  310-324  A.I).  THEATRES  (th.)  and  AMIMHTHEATRKS 
(amp.):  th.  Pomfcy,  55  B.C.;  of  Balbus  and  of  Marcellus,  13  i:.  c ; 
tli.  and  amp.  at  Pompeii  and  Herculanuni ;  Colosseum  at  Rome,  78- 
8j  A.D.  ;  th.  at  Orange  and  in  Asia  Minor ;  amp.  at  Albano,  Con- 
stantine,  Nimes,  Petra,  Pola,  Rcggio,  Trevi,  Tusculum,  Verona, 
etc. ;  amp.  Castrense  at  Rome,  96  A.D.  Circuses  and  stadia  at  Rome. 
THERM.E:  of  Agrippa,  27  B.C.  ;  of  Nero;  of  Titus,  78  A.D.  ;  Domitian, 
go  A.D.  ;  Caracalla,  21 1  A.D.  ;  Diocletian,  305  A.D.  ;  Constantinc,  320  A.D.  ; 
Gallienus  ("Minerva  Medica"),  3d  century  A.D.  ;  at  Pompeii,  Stabian 
Baths,  Baths  of  Forum,  etc.  ARCHES  :  of  Stcrtinius,  196  B.C.  ;  Scipio, 
190  B.C.  ;  Augustus, 30  B.C.  ;  Titus,  71-82  A.D.  ;  Trajan,  117  A.D.  ;  Severus, 
203  A.D.  ;  Constantine,  320  A.D.  ;  of  Drusus,  Dolabella,  Silversmiths,  204 
A.D.  ;  Janus  Quadrifrons,  320  A.D.  (  ?)  ;  all  at  Rome.  Others  at  Bene- 
vento,  Ancona,  Rimini  in  Italy;  also  at  Athens,  and  at  Reims  and 
St.  Chamas  in  France.  Columns  of  Trajan,  Antoninus,  Marcus 
Aurelius  at  Rome ;  others  at  Constantinople,  Alexandria,  etc. 
TOMBS  :  along  Via  Appia  and  Via  Latina,  at  Rome ;  Via  Sacra  at 
Pompeii;  tower-tombs  at  St.  Remy  in  France;  rock-cut  at  Petra; 
at  Rome,  of  Caius  Cestius  and  Cecilia  Metella,  ist  century  B.C.  ;  of 
Augustus,  14  A.D.  ;  Hadrian,  138  A.D.  PALACES  and  PRIVATE  HOUSES: 
On  Palatine,  of  Augustus,  Tiberius,  Nero,  Domitian,  Septimius 
Severus,  Elagabalus;  Villa  of  Hadrian  at  Tivoli;  palaces  of 
Diocletian  at  Spalato  and  of  Constantinc  at  Constantinople. 
House  of  Livia  on  Palatine  (Augustan  period)  ;  of  Vestals,  re- 
built by  Hadrian,  cir.  120  A.D.  Houses  at  Pompeii  and  llercu- 
lanum,  cir.  60-79  A-i>..  e.g.,  of  Pausa,  of  Diomed,  of  Tragic  Poet, 
of  Musician,  of  M.  Holconius,  of  the  Vettii;  rustic  villa  at  !><>s- 
coreale  (walls  removed  to  Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York)  ; 
Villas  of  (Jordianus  ("Tor1  do'  Schiavi,"  240  A.D.),  and  of  Sal- 
lust  at  Rome,  and  of  Pliny  at  Laurcntium. 


CHAPTER   X. 
EARLY    CHRISTIAN    ARCHITECTURE. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED:  Bunsen,  Die  Basil ikcn  christlichcn 
Roms.  Butler,  Architecture  and  other  Arts  in  Northern  Central 
Syria.  Corroyer,  L1  architecture  romane.  Cummings,  A  History 
of  Architecture  in  Italy.  Dehio,  Kirchliche  Baukunst  des  Abend- 
landes.  Essenwein  (Hdbuch  d.  Arch.),  Aus gauge  dcr  klassischen 
Baukunst.  Gutensohn  u.  Knapp,  Denkmaler  dcr  christlichen 
Religion.  Hiibsch,  Monuments  de  I' architecture  chretienne. 
Lanciani,  Pagan  and  Christian  Rome.  Mothes,  Die  Basiliken- 
jorm  bei  den  Christen,  etc.  Okely,  Development  0}  Christian 
Architecture  in  Italy.  Von  Quast,  Die  altchristlichen  Bauwerke 
zu  Ravenna.  De  Rossi,  Roma  Sottcrranea.  Venturi,  Storia  dc 
I'Arte  Italiana.  De  Vogue,  Syne  Cent  rale;  J&glises  de  la  Terre 
Sainte. 

INTRODUCTORY.  The  official  recognition  of  Christianity  by 
Licinius  and  later  by  Constantine  *  in  the  early  years  of  the  third 
century  A.D.,  simply  legalized  an  institution  which  had  been  for 
three  centuries  gathering  momentum  for  its  final  conquest  of  the 
antique  world.  The  new  religion  rapidly  enlisted  in  its  service 
for  a  common  purpose  and  under  a  common  impulse  races  as 
wide  apart  in  blood  and  culture  as  those  which  had  built  up  the 
art  of  imperial  Rome.  It  was  Christianity  which  reduced  to  civ- 
ilization in  the  West  the  Germanic  hordes  that  had  overthrown 
Rome,  bringing  their  fresh  and  hitherto  untamed  vigor  to  the  task 
of  recreating  architecture  out  of  the  decaying  fragments  of  classic 
art.  So  in  the  East  its  life-giving  influence  awoke  the  slumbering 

*  The  celebrated  Juliet  (if  Milan  supposed  to  have  been  issued 
by  Constantine  in  ,y.}  A.U.  is  now  believed  to  be  a  forgery. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE.  Hi 

Greek  art-instinct  to  new  triumphs  in  the  arts  of  building,  less 
refined  and  perfect  indeed,  but  not  less  sublime  than  those  of  the 
Periclean  age.  Long  before  the  Constantinian  edict,  the  Chris- 
tians in  the  Eastern  provinces  had  enjoyed  substantial  freedom 
of  worship.  Meeting  often  in  the  private  basilicas  of  wealthy  con- 
verts, and  finding  these,  and  still  more  the  great  public  basilicas, 
suited  to  the  requirements  of  their  worship,  they  early  began  to 
build  in  imitation  of  these  edifices.  There  are  many  remains  of 
these  early  churches  in  northern  Africa  and  central  Syria. 

THE  BASILICAN  STYLE  IN  ROME.  Early  Christian  art  in 
Europe  was  at  first  wholly  sepulchral,  developing  in  the  cata- 
combs the  symbols  of  the  new  faith.  Once  liberated,  however, 
Christianity  appropriated  bodily  for  its  public  rites  the  basilica- 
type  and  the  general  substance  of  Roman  architecture.  Shafts 
and  capitals,  architraves  and  rich  linings 
of  veined  marble,  even  the  pagan  Bacchic 
symbolism  of  the  vine,  it  adapted  to  new 
uses  in  its  own  service.  Constantino 
led  the  way  in  architecture,  endowing 
Bethlehem  and  Jerusalem  with  splendid 
churches,  and  his  new  capital  on  the 
Bosphorus  with  the  first  of  the  three 
historic  basilicas  dedicated  to  the  Holy 
Wisdom  (Hagia  Sophia).  One  of  the 

,.     .  FIG.    66. STA.    COSTAN/A, 

greatest  of  innovators,  he  seems  to  have 


KOMK. 


had  a  special  predilection   for  circular 

buildings,  and  the  tombs  and  baptisteries  which  he  erected  in 
this  form,  especially  that  known  as  Santa  Costan/.a  (Eig.  66), 
furnished  the  prototype  for  numberless  Italian  baptisteries  in 
later  ages.* 

The  Christian  basilica  (see  Eigs.  67,  68)  generally  comprised 

*  It  appears  to  be  still  uncertain  whether  this  was  erected  as 
a  tomb  to  the  sister  or  a  baptistery  for  the  daughter  of  Con- 
stantinc. 


112  HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

a  broad  and  lofty  nave,  separated  by  rows  of  columns  from  the 
single  or  double  side-aisles.  The  aisles  had  usually  about  half  the 
width  and  height  of  the  nave,  and  like  it  were  covered  with  wooden 
roofs  and  ceilings.  Above  the  columns  which  flanked  the  nave 
rose  the  lofty  clearstory  wall,  pierced  with  windows  above  the  side- 
aisle  roofs  and  supporting  the  immense  trusses  of  the  roof  of  the 
nave.  The  timbering  of  the  latter  was  sometimes  bare,  some- 
times concealed  by  a  richly  panelled  ceiling,  carved,  gilded,  and 
painted.  At  the  further  end  of  the  nave  was  the  sanctuary  or 
apse,  with  the  seats  for  the  clergy  on  a  raised  platform,  the  bema, 
in  front  of  which  was  the  altar.  Transepts  sometimes  expanded 
to  right  and  left  before  the  altar,  under  which  was  the  conjcssio  or 
shrine  of  the  titular  saint  or  martyr. 

An  atrium  or  forecourt  surrounded  by  a  covered  arcade  pre- 
ceded the  basilica  proper,  the  arcade  at  the  front  of  the  church 
forming  a  porch  or  narllicx,  which,  however,  in  some  cases  existed 
without  the  atrium.  The  exterior  was  extremely  plain;  the  in- 
terior, on  the  contrary,  was  resplendent  with  incrustations  of 
veined  marble  and  with  sumptuous  decorations  in  glass  mosaic 
(called  opus  Grccanicnm}  on  a  blue  or  golden  ground.  Especially 
rich  were  the  half-dome  of  the  apse  and  the  wall-space  surround- 
ing its  arch  and  called  the  triumphal  arch;  next  in  decorative  im- 
portance came  the  broad  band  of  wall  beneath  the  clearstory  win- 
dows. Upon  these  surfaces  the  mosaic-workers  wrought  with 
minute  cubes  of  colored  glass  pictures  and  symbols  almost  imper- 
ishable, in  which  the  glow  of  color  and  a  certain  decorative  grand- 
eur of  effect  in  the  composition  went  far  to  atone  for  the  uncouth 
drawing.  With  growing  wealth  and  an  increasingly  elaborate 
ritual,  the  furniture  and  equipments  of  the  church  assumed  greater 
architectural  importance.  A  large  rectangular  space  was  re- 
tained for  the  choir  in  front  of  the  bema,  and  enclosed  by  a  breast- 
high  parapet  of  marble,  richly  inlaid.  On  either  side  were  the 
pulpits  or  ambones  for  the  Gospel  and  Epistle.  A  lofty  canopy 
was  built  over  the  altar,  the  ciborium  or  baldaquin,  supported  on 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE.  113 

four  marble  columns.  A  few  basilicas  were  built  with  galleries, 
as  in  S.  Lorenzo  and  Sta.  Agnese.  Adjoining  the  basilica  in  the 
earlier  examples  were  the  baptistery  and  the  tomb  of  the  saint, 
circular  or  polygonal  buildings  usually;  but  in  later  times  these 
were  replaced  by  the  font  or  baptismal  chapel  in  the  church  and 
the  conjessio  under  the  altar. 

Of  the  two  Constantinian  basilicas  in  Rome,  the  one  dedicated 
to  St.  Peter  was  demolished  in  the  fifteenth  century;  that  of 
St.  John  Lateran  has  been  so  disfigured  by  modern  alterations  as 
to  be  unrecognizable.  The  former  of  the  two  adjoined  the  site 
of  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Peter  in  the  circus  of  Caligula  and  Nero; 
it  was  five-aisled,  380  feet 

in   length    by    212    feet   in    jjj  fl 4 

width.  The  nave  was  80 
feet  wide  and  100  feet 
high,  and  the  disproportion- 
ately high  clearstory  wall 
rested  on  horizontal  archi- 
traves carried  by  columns.  FIG-  67.— PLAN  OP  THE  BASILICA  OP 

,-p,          .....  ST.    PAUL. 

The  impressive  dimensions 

and  simple  plan  of  this  structure  gave  it  a  majesty  worthy  of  its 
rank  as  the  first  church  of  Christendom.  St.  Paul  beyond 
the  Walls  (S.  Paolo  fuori  le  mura),  built  in  386  by  Thcodosius, 
resembled  St.  Peter's  closely  in  plan  (Figs.  67,  68).  Destroyed 
by  fire  in  1823,  it  has  been  rebuilt  with  almost  its  pristine  splen- 
dor, and  is,  next  to  the  modern  St.  Peter's  and  the  Pantheon, 
the  most  impressive  place  of  worship  in  Rome.  Santa  Maria 
Maggiore,*  though  smaller  in  size,  is  more  interesting  because 
it  so  largely  retains  internally  its  original  aspect,  its  Renaissance 
ceiling  happily  harmonizing  with  its  simple  antique  lines.  Ionic 
columns  support  architraves  to  carry  the  clearstory.  In  most 
other  examples,  St.  Paul's  included,  arches  turned  from  column 

*  Hereafter  the  abbreviation  S.  M.  will  be  generally  used  in- 
stead of  the  name  Santa  Maria. 


114 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


to  column  perform  this  function.  The  first  known  case  of  such 
use  of  classic  columns  as  arch-bearers  was  in  the  palace  of 
Diocletian  at  Spalato;  it  also  appears  in  Syrian  buildings  of  the 
third  and  fourth  centuries  A.D. 

The  basilica  remained  the  model  for  ecclesiastical  architecture 

in  Rome,  without  noticeable 
change  either  of  plan  or  de- 
tail, until  the  time  of  the 
Renaissance.  All  the  earlier 
examples  employed  columns 
and  capitals  taken  from  an- 
cient ruins,  often  incongru- 
ous and  ill-matched  in  size 

n:\**mr^m~>s*MSi    an<1  ordcr:  San  Clemente 

\\\ fffear IS^ii mmA   (I Io8)' built over  the  ruins  of 

a  sixth-century  basilica,  has 

HilUSli  retoinrf    Zs,    intact    its 

early  aspect,  its  choir-enclo- 
sure, baldaquin,  and  ambones 
having  been  well  preserved 
or  carefully  restored.  Other 
important  basilicas  are  men- 
tioned in  the  list  of  monu- 
ments on  pages  118,  119;  of 
these  the  most  important  is 
San  Lorenzo,  a  combination  of  two  buildings,  the  earlier  two- 
storied  portion  dating  originally  from  Constantino's  days,  the 
nave  from  the  fifth  century;  but  both  remodelled  by  Ilonorius 
III.  early  in  the  thirteenth  century. 

RAVENNA.  The  fifth  and  sixth  centuries  endowed  Ra- 
venna with  a  number  of  notable  buildings  which,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  cathedral,  demolished  in  the  last  century,  have  been 
preserved  to  our  day.  Subdued  by  the  Byzantine  emperor  Jus- 
tinian in  537,  Ravenna  became  the  meeting-ground  for  Early 


PIG.    68. — ST.    PAUL   BEYOND   THE   WALLS. 
INTERIOR. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE.  115 

Christian  and  Byzantine  traditions  and  the  basilican  and  circular 
plans  are  both  represented.  The  two  churches  dedicated  to  St. 
Apollinaris,  S.  Apollinare  Nuovo  (520)  in  the  city,  and  S. 
Apollinare  in  Classe  (538),  in  what  was  formerly  the  port,  are 
especially  interesting  for  their  fine  mosaics,  and  for  the  impost- 
blocks  interposed  above  the  capitals  of  their  columns  to  receive 
the  springing  of  the  pier-arches.  These  blocks  appear  to  be 
somewhat  crude  modifications  of  the  fragmentary  architraves  or 
entablatures  employed  in  classic  Roman  architecture  to  receive 
the  springing  of  vaults  sustained  by  columns,  and  became  com- 
mon in  Byzantine  structures  (Fig.  73).  The  use  of  external 
arcading  to  give  some  slight  adornment  to  the  walls  of  the  second 
of  the  above-named  churches,  and  the  round  bell-towers  of  brick 
which  adjoined  both  of  them,  were  first  steps  toward  the  develop- 
ment of  the  "wall-veil"  or  arcaded  decoration,  and  of  the  cam- 
paniles, which  in  later  centuries  became  so  characteristic  of  north 
Italian  churches  (see  Chapter  XIII.).  In  Rome  the  campaniles 
which  accompany  many  of  the  mediaeval  basilicas  are  square  and 
pierced  with  many  windows  (see  p.  163). 

The  basilican  form  of  church  became  general  in  Italy,  a  large 
proportion  of  whose  churches  continued  to  be  built  with  wooden 
roofs  and  with  but  slight  deviations  from  the  original  type,  long 
after  the  appearance  of  the  Gothic  style.  The  chief  departures 
from  early  precedent  were  in  the  exterior,  which  was  embellished 
with  marble  incrustations  as  in  S.  Miniato  (Florence);  or  with 
successive  stories  of  wall-arcades,  as  in  many  churches  in  Pisa  and 
Lucca  (see  Fig.  94);  until  finally  the  introduction  of  clustered 
piers,  pointed  arches,  and  vaulting,  gradually  transformed  the 
basilican  into  the  Italian  Romanesque  and  (iothic  styles. 

SYRIA  AND  THE  EAST.  In  Syria,  particularly  the  central 
portion,  the  Christian  architecture  of  the  third  and  eighth  cen- 
turies produced  a  number  of  very  interesting  monuments.  The 
churches  built  by  Constantino  in  Syria — the  Church  of  the  Nativ- 
ity in  Bethlehem  (nominally  built  by  his  mother),  of  the  Ascension 


u6 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


at  Jerusalem,  the  magnificent  octagonal  church  on  the  site  of  the 
Temple,  and  finally  the  somewhat  similar  church  at  Antioch — 
were  the  most  notable  Christian  monuments  in  Syria.  The  first 
three  on  the  list,  still  extant  in  part  at  least,  have  been  so  altered  by 
later  additions  and  restorations  that  their  original  forms  are  only 
approximately  known  from  early  descriptions.  They  were  all  of 
large  size,  and  the  octagonal  church  on  the  Temple  platform  was 
of  exceptional  magnificence.  The  columns  and  a  part  of  the 

marble  incrustations  of  the 
early  design  are  still  visible  in 
the  "Mosque  of  Omar,"  but 
most  of  the  old  work  is  con- 
cealed by  the  decoration  of 
tiles  applied  by  the  Moslems, 
and  the  whole  interior  aspect 
altered  by  the  wood-and- 
plaster  dome  with  which  they 
replaced  the  simpler  roof  of 
the  original. 

Christian     architecture    in 
Syria  soon,  however,  diverged 

from  Roman  traditions.  The  abundance  of  hard  stone,  the 
total  lack  of  clay  or  brick,  the  remoteness  from  Rome,  led  to  a 
peculiar  independence  and  originality  in  the  forms  and  details  of 
the  ecclesiastical  as  well  as  of  the  domestic  architecture  of  cen- 
tral Syria.  These  innovations  upon  Roman  models  resulted 
in  the  development  of  distinct  types  which,  but  for  the  arrest 
of  progress  by  the  Mohammedan  conquest  in  the  seventh  cen- 
tury, would  doubtless  have  inaugurated  a  new  and  independ- 
ent style  of  architecture.  Piers  of  masonry  came  to  replace  the 
classic  column,  as  at  Tafkha  (third  or  fourth  century),  Rouhciha 
and  Kalb  Lou/eh  (fifth  century?  Fig.  6<));  the  ceilings  in  the 
smaller  churches  were  often  formed  with  stone  slabs;  the  apse 
was  at  first  confined  within  the  main  rectangle  of  the  plan,  and 


FIG.    69. CHURCH    AT    KALB    LOUZEH. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


117 


was  sometimes  square.  The  exterior  assumed  a  striking  and  pic- 
turesque variety  of  forms  by  means  of  turrets,  porches,  and  gables. 
Singularly  enough,  vaulting  hardly  appears  at  all,  though  the 
arch  is  used  with  fine  effect.  Conventional  and  monastic  groups 
of  buildings  appear  early  in  Syria,  and  that  of  St.  Simeon  Stylites 
at  Kelat  Seman  is  an  impressive  and  interesting  monument. 
Four  three-aisled  wings  form  the  arms  of  a  cross,  meeting  in  a 
central  octagonal  open  court,  in  the  midst  of  which  stood  the 
column  of  the  saint.  The  eastern  arm  of  the  cross  forms  a  com- 
plete basilica  of  itself,  and  the  whole  cross  measures  330  x  300 
feet.  Chapels,  cloisters,  and  cells  adjoin  the  main  edifice. 

Circular  and  polygonal  plans  appear  in  a  number  of  Syrian 
examples  of  the  early  sixth  century.  Their  most  striking  feature 
is  the  inscribing  of  the  circle  of 
polygon  in  a  square  which  forms 
the  exterior  outline,  and  the  use  of 
four  niches  to  fill  out  the  corners. 
This  occurs  at  Kelat  Seman  in  a 
small  double  church,  perhaps  the 
tomb  and  chapel  of  a  martyr;  in 
the  cathedral  at  Bozrah  (Fig.  70), 
and  in  the  small  domical  church  of 
St.  George  at  Ezra.  These  were 
probably  the  prototypes  of  many 
Byzantine  churches  like  St.  Sergius 
at  Constantinople,  and  San  Vitale 
at  Ravenna  (Fig.  74),  though  the 

exact  dates  of  the  Syrian  churches  are  not  known.  The  one 
at  Ezra  is  the  only  one  of  the  three  which  has  a  dome,  the  others 
having  been  roofed  with  wood. 

The  interesting  domestic  architecture  of  this  period  is  pre- 
served in  whole  towns  and  villages  in  the  Hauran,  which,  de- 
serted at  the  Arab  conquest,  have  never  been  reoccupied  and  re- 
main almost  intact  but  for  the  decay  of  their  wooden  roofs.  They 


FIG.    70. CATHEDRAL    AT    BOZRAH. 


IlS  HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

are  marked  by  dignity  and  simplicity  of  design,  and  by  the  same 
picturesque  massing  of  gables  and  roofs  and  porches  which  has 
already  been  remarked  of  the  churches.  The  arches  are  broad, 
the  columns  rather  heavy,  the  mouldings  few  and  simple,  and  the 
scanty  carving  vigorous  and  effective,  often  strongly  Byzantine 
in  type. 

Elsewhere  in  the  Eastern  world  are  many  early  churches  of 
which  even  the  enumeration  would  exceed  the  limits  of  this  work. 
Salonica  counts  a  number  of  basilicas  and  several  domical 
churches.  The  church  of  St.  George,  now  a  mosque,  is  of  early 
date  and  thoroughly  Roman  in  plan  and  section,  of  the  same 
class  with  the  Pantheon  and  the  tomb  of  Helena,  in  both  of  which 
a  massive  circular  wall  is  lightened  by  eight  niches.  At  Angora 
(Ancyra),  Hierapolis,  Pergamus,  and  other  points  in  Asia  Minor; 
in  Egypt,  Nubia,  and  Algiers,  are  many  examples  of  both  circular 
and  basilican  edifices  of  the  early  centuries  of  Christianity.  In 
Constantinople  there  remains  but  a  single  representative  of  the 
basilican  type,  the  church  of  St.  John  Studius,  now  the  Emir 
Akhor  mosque. 

MONUMENTS:  ROME:  4th  century;  St.  Peter's,  Sta.  Costanza, 
330?;  Baptistery  of  St.  John  Lateran,  330;  Sta.  Pudentiana.  335 
(rebuilt  1598);  tomb  of  St.  Helena;  St.  Paul's  beyond  the  Walls, 
386  (burned  18.23.  rebuilt  late  Hjth  century);  St.  John  Lateran 
(wholly  remodelled  in  modern  times).  5th  century:  Sta.  Sabina, 
425;  Sta.  Maria  Maggiore,  432;  S.  Pietro  in  Vincoli.  44J  (greatly 
altered  in  modern  times);  San  Stefano  Rotondo.  6th  century:  S. 
Loren/o,  580  (the  older  portion  in  two  stories)  ;  SS.  Cosmo  c  Dami- 
.1110.  7th  century:  Sta.  Agncse,  625;  S.  (!ior»io  in  Velabro,  68j.  8th 
century:  Sta.  Maria  in  Cosmedin  ;  S.  Criso^ono.  <;th  century:  S. 
Nereo  ed  Achilleo;  Sta.  Pra>sede  ;  Sta.  Maria  in  Dominica,  uth 
and  I3th  centuries:  S.  Clemcntc.  iioS;  Sla.  Maria  in  I  rasteverc  ;  S. 
Lorenzo  (nave)  ;  Sta.  Maria  in  Ara  C deli.  RAVKNNA:  Baptistery  of 
S.  John,  400  (?);  S.  Francesco ;  S.  (iiovanni  Kvan.uelista.  4^5; 
Sta.  Ak'ata,  430;  S.  (iiovanni  Hattista.  430;  tomb  of  (ialla  Pla- 
eidia,  450;  S.  Apollinarc  Nuovo,  5oo-5_'o;  S.  Apollinnrc  in  C'lasse, 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE.  1 19 

538;  St.  Victor;  Sta.  Maria  in  Cosmcdin  (the  Arian  Baptist- 
ery) ;  tomb  of  Theodoric  (Sta.  Maria  della  Rotonda,  a  decagonal 
two-storied  mausoleum,  with  a  low  dome  cut  from  a  single  stone 
36  feet  in  diameter),  530-540.  ITALY  IN  GENERAL,  including 
ISTRIA:  basilica  at  Parenzo,  540  and  Pola  (Istria);  at  Grado, 
580;  cathedral  and  Sta.  Fosca  at  Torcello,  640-700;  at  Naples, 
Sta.  Restituta,  perhaps  Sti.  Augeli,  Perugia,  7th  century; 
others,  mostly  of  ioth-i3th  centuries,  at  Murano  near  Ven- 
ice, at  Florence  (S.  Miniato),  Spoleto,  Toscanella,  etc.;  bap- 
tisteries at  Asti,  Florence,  Nocera  dci  Pagani,  and  other 
places.  In  SYRIA  AND  THE  EAST:  basilicas  of  the  Nativity 
at  Bethlehem,  of  the  Sepulchre  and  of  the  Ascension  at 
Jerusalem ;  also  polygonal  church  on  Temple  platform ;  these 
all  of  the  4th  century.  Basilicas  at  Bakouzah,  llass,  Kelat  Se- 
man,  Kalb  Louzeh,  Rouheiha,  Tourmanin,  etc. ;  circular  churches, 
tombs,  and  baptisteries  at  Bozrah,  Ezra,  Hass,  Kelat  Seman, 
Rouheiha,  etc. ;  all  these  4th-8th  centuries.  Golden  church  at 
Antioch  6th  century.  Churches  at  Constantinople  (,Holy  Wis- 
dom, St.  John  Studius,  etc.),  Hierapolis,  Pergamus,  and  Thes- 
salonica  (St.  Demetrius,  St.  George,  "  Eski  Djuma");  in  Egypt 
and  Nubia  (Djemla,  Announa,  Ibreem,  Siotti,  etc.);  at  Orleans- 
ville  in  Algeria.  (For  churches,  etc.,  of  the  8th-ioth  centuries  in 
the  West,  see  Chapter  XIII.) 


CHAPTER    XI. 
BYZANTINE    ARCHITECTURE. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED:  As  before,  Essenwein,  Hiibsch,  Von 
Quast.  Also,  Bayet,  L'Art  Byzantin.  Choisy,  UArt  dc  bdtir 
chez  les  Byzantins.  Couchaud,  CY/0/.v  d'eglises  byzantines  en 
Grccc.  Gayet,  L'Art  byzantin  d'apres  les  monuments  en  Italic. 
Holtzinger,  Die  Sophienkirche  iind  vcru'andte  Baittcn.  Lethaby 
and  Swainson,  Sancta  Sophia^  Ongania,  La  Basilica  di  San 
Marco.  Pulgher,  Ancicnncs  Eglises  Byzantines  de  Constanti- 
nople. Salzenbcrg,  Altchristliche  Baudenkmale  i'on  Constanti- 
nopcl.  Texier  and  Pullan,  Byzantine  Architecture. 

ORIGIN  AND  CHARACTER.  The  decline  and  fall  of  Rome 
arrested  the  development  of  the  basilican  style  in  the  West,  as 
did  the  Arab  conquest  later  in  Syria.  It  was  otherwise  in  the  new 
Eastern  capital  founded  by  Constantinc  in  the  ancient  Byzan- 
tium, which  was  rising  in  power  and  wealth  while  Rome  lay  in 
ruins.  Situated  at  the  strategic  point  of  the  natural  highway  of 
commerce  between  East  and  West,  salubrious  and  enchantingly 
beautiful  in  its  surroundings,  the  new  capital  grew  rapidly  from 
provincial  insignificance  to  metropolitan  importance.  Its 
founder  had  embellished  it  with  an  extraordinary  wealth  of 
buildings,  in  which,  owing  to  the  scarcity  of  trained  architects, 
quantity  and  cost  doubtless  outran  quality.  But  at  least  the 
tameness  of  blindly  followed  precedent  was  avoided,  and  this 
departure  from  traditional  tenets  contributed  undoubtedly  to  the 
originality  of  Byzantine  architecture.  A  large  part  of  the  artisans 
employed  in  building  were  then,  as  now,  from  Asia  Minor  and  the 
/Kgean  Islands,  Greek  in  race  if  not  in  name.  An  ( )riental  taste 
for  brilliant  and  harmonious  color  and  for  minute  decoration 


BYZANTINE   ARCHITECTURE.  121 

spread  over  broad  surfaces  must  have  been  stimulated  by  trade 
with  the  Far  East  and  by  constant  contact  with  Oriental  peoples, 
costumes,  and  arts.  An  Asiatic  origin  may  also  be  assigned  to 
the  methods  of  vaulting  employed,  far  more  varied  than  the 
Roman,  not  only  in  form  but  also  in  materials  and  processes. 
From  Roman  architecture,  however,  the  Byzantines  borrowed 
the  fundamental  notion  of  their  structural  art;  that,  namely,  of 
distributing  the  weights  and  strains  of  their  vaulted  structures 
upon  isolated  and  massive  points  of  support,  strengthened  by  deep 
buttresses,  internal  or  external,  as  the  case  might  be.  Roman, 
likewise,  was  the  use  of  polished  monolithic  columns,  and  the  in- 
crustation of  the  piers  and  walls  with  panels  of  variegated  mar- 
ble, as  well  as  the  decoration  of  plastered  surfaces  by  fresco  and 
mosaic,  and  the  use  of  opus  sectile  and  opus  Alexandrinum  for  the 
production  of  sumptuous  marble  pavements.  In  the  first  of 
these  processes  the  color-figures  of  the  pattern  are  formed  each  of 
a  single  piece  of  marble  cut  to  the  shape  required;  in  the  second 
the  pattern  is  compounded  of  minute  squares,  triangles,  and 
curved  pieces  of  uniform  size.  Under  these  combined  influences 
the  artists  of  Constantinople  wrought  out  new  problems  in  con- 
struction and  decoration,  giving  to  all  that  they  touched  a  new 
and  striking  character. 

There  is  no  absolute  line  of  demarcation,  chronological,  geo- 
graphical, or  structural,  between  Early  Christian  and  Byzantine 
architecture.  But  the  former  was  especially  characterized  by  the 
basilica  with  three  or  five  aisles,  and  the  use  of  wooden  roofs  even 
in  its  circular  edifices;  the  vault  being  exceedingly  rare,  and  the 
dome  used  only  for  small  circular  tombs  and  baptisteries.  By- 
zantine architecture,  on  the  other  hand,  rarely  produced  the 
simple  three-aisled  or  five-aisled  basilica.  Nearly  all  its  monu- 
ments were  vaulted  or  domed,  or  both,  and  Byzantine  archi- 
tecture achieved  its  highest  triumphs  in  the  use  of  the  penile H fire, 
as  the  triangular  spherical  surfaces  are  called,  by  the  aid  of  which 
a  dome  can  be  supported  on  the  summits  of  four  arches  spanning 


122  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

the  four  sides  of  a  square,  as  explained  later.  There  is  as  little 
uniformity  in  the  plans  of  Byzantine  buildings  as  in  the  forms  of 
the  vaulting.  A  few  types  of  church-plan,  however,  predom- 
inated locally  in  one  or  another  centre;  but  the  controlling  feature 
of  the  style  was  the  dome  and  the  constructive  system  with  which 
it  was  associated.  The  dome,  it  is  true,  had  long  been  used  by 
the  Romans,  but  always  on  a  circular  plan,  as  in  the  Pantheon.* 
It  is  also  a  fact  that  pendentives  have  been  found  in  Syria  and 
Asia  Minor  older  than  the  oldest  Byzantine  examples.  But  the 
special  feature  characterizing  the  Byzantine  dome  on  penden- 
tives was  its  almost  exclusive  association  with  plans  having  piers 
and  columns  or  aisles,  with  the  dome  as  the  central  and  dominant 
feature  of  the  complex  design  (see  plans,  Figs.  74,  75,  76,  79). 
Another  strictly  Byzantine  practice  was  the  piercing  of  the 
lower  portion  of  the  dome  with  windows  forming  a  circle  or 
crown,  and  the  final  development  of  this  feature  into  a  high  drum. 

CONSTRUCTION.  Still  another  divergence  from  Roman 
methods  was  in  the  substitution  of  brick  and  stone  masonry  for 
concrete.  Brick  was  used  for  the  mass  as  well  as  the  facing  of 
walls  and  piers,  and  for  the  vaulting  in  many  buildings  mainly 
built  of  stone.  Stone  was  used  either  alone  or  in  combination 
with  brick,  the  latter  appearing  in  bands  of  four  or  five  courses  at 
intervals  of  three  or  four  feet.  In  later  work  a  regular  alternation 
of  the  two  materials,  course  for  course,  was  not  uncommon.  In 
piers  intended  to  support  unusually  heavy  loads  the  stone  was 
very  carefully  cut  and  fitted,  and  sometimes  tied  and  clamped 
with  iron. 

Vaults  were  built  sometimes  of  brick,  sometimes  of  cut  stone; 
in  a  few  cases  even  of  earthenware  jars  fitting  into  each  other,  and 
laid  up  in  a  continuous  contracting  spiral  from  the  base  to  the 
crown  of  a  dome,  as  in  San  Yitale  at  Ravenna.  Ingenious  pro- 
cesses for  building  vaults  without  centrings  were  made  use  of — 

*  With  tlit-  single  exception  of  the  Baths  of  Gallienus  ("  Min- 
erva Medica"),  j68  A.D. 


BYZANTINE   ARCHITECTURE. 


123 


processes  inherited  from  the  drain-builders  of  ancient  Assyria,  and 
still  in  vogue  in  Armenia,  Persia,  and  Asia  Minor.  The  groined 
vault  was  common,  but  always  approximated  the  form  of  a  dome, 
by  a  longitudinal  convexity  upward  in  the  intersecting  vaults. 
The  aisles  of  Hagia  Sophia*  display  a  remarkable  variety  of 
forms  in  the  vaulting. 

DOMES.  The  dome,  as  we 
have  seen,  early  became  the 
most  characteristic  feature  of 
Byzantine  architecture;  and 
especially  the  dome  on  pen- 
dentives.  If  a  hemisphere 
be  cut  by  five  planes,  four 
perpendicular  to  its  base  and 
bounding  a  square  inscribed 
therein,  and  the  fifth  plane 
parallel  to  the  base  and  tan- 
gent to  the  semicircular  inter- 
sections made  by  the  first 
four,  there  will  remain  of  the 
original  surface  only  four 
triangular  spaces  bounded 

by  arcs  or  circles.  These  are  called  pendcntives  (Fig.  71  a). 
When  these  are  built  up  of  masonry,  each  course  forms  a  species 
of  arch,  by  virtue  of  its  convexity.  At  the  crown  of  the  four 
arches  on  which  they  rest,  these  courses  meet  and  form  a  com- 
plete circle,  perfectly  stable  and  capable  of  sustaining  any  super- 
structure that  does  not  by  excessive  weight  disrupt  the  whole 
fabric  by  overthrowing  the  four  arches  which  support  it.  Upon 
these  pendentives,  then,  a  new  dome  may  be  started  of  any  de- 

"  St.  Sophia,"  the  common  name1  of  tin's  church,  is  a  mis- 
nomer. It  was  not  dedicated  to  a  saint  at  all.  hut  to  the  Divine 
Wisdom  (Hagia  Sophia),  which  name  the  Turks  have  retained 
in  the  softened  form  "  Ava  Sofia." 


FIG.    71.  —  DIAGRAM   OF    PENDENTIVES. 


124  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

sired  curvature,  or  even  a  cylindrical  drum  to  support  a  still  loftier 
dome,  as  in  the  later  churches  (Fig.  71  &).  This  method  of  cov- 
ering a  square  is  simpler  than  the  groined  vault,  having  no  sharp 
edges  or  intersections;  it  is  at  least  as  effective  architecturally,  by 
reason  of  its  greater  height  in  the  centre;  and  is  equally  applica- 
ble to  successive  bays  of  an  oblong,  cruciform,  and  even  columnar 
building.  In  the  great  cisterns  at  Constantinople  vast  areas  are 
covered  by  rows  of  small  domes  supported  on  ranges  of  columns. 

The  earlier  domes  were  commonly  pierced  with  windows  at  the 
base,  this  apparent  weakening  of  the  vault  being  compensated 
for  by  strongly  buttressing  the  piers  between  the  windows,  as  in 
Hagia  Sophia.  Here  forty  windows  form  a  crown  of  light  at  the 
spring  of  the  dome,  producing  an  effect  almost  as  striking  as  that 
of  the  simple  oculus  of  the  Pantheon,  and  celebrated  by  ancient 
writers  in  the  most  extravagant  terms.  In  later  and  smaller 
churches  a  high  drum  was  introduced  beneath  the  dome,  in  order 
to  secure,  by  means  of  longer  windows,  more  light  than  could  be 
obtained  by  merely  piercing  the  diminutive  domes. 

Buttressing  was  well  understood  by  the  Byzantines,  whose 
plans  were  skilfully  devised  to  provide  internal  abutments,  which 
were  often  continued  above  the  roofs  of  the  side-aisles  to  prop  the 
main  vaults,  precisely  as  was  done  by  the  Romans  in  their 
thermce  and  similar  halls.  But  the  Byzantines,  while  adhering 
less  strictly  than  the  Romans  to  traditional  forms  and  processes, 
and  displaying  much  more  ready  contrivance  and  special  adapta- 
tion of  means  to  ends,  never  worked  out  this  pregnant  structural 
principle  to  its  logical  conclusion  as  did  the  Gothic  architects  of 
Western  Europe  a  few  centuries  later. 

DECORATION.  The  exteriors  of  Byzantine  buildings  (except 
in  some  of  the  small  churches  of  late  date)  were  generally  bare  and 
lacking  in  beauty.  The  interiors,  on  the  contrary,  were  richly 
decorated,  color  playing  a  much  larger  part  than  carving  in  the 
designs.  Printing  was  resorted  to  only  in  the  smaller  buildings, 
the  more  durable  and  splendid  medium  of  mosaic  being  usually 


BYZANTINE   ARCHITECTURE. 


125 


preferred.  This  was,  as  a  rule,  confined  to  the  vaults  and  to 
those  portions  of  the  wall-surfaces  embraced  by  the  vaults  above 
their  springing.  The  colors  were  brilliant,  the  background  being 
usually  of  gold,  though  sometimes  of  blue  or  a  delicate  green. 
Biblical  scenes,  symbolic  and  allegorical  figures  and  groups  of 
saints  adorned  the  larger  areas,  particularly  the  half-dome  of  the 
apse,  as  in  the  basilicas.  The  smaller  vaults,  the  soffits  of  arches, 
borders  of  pictures,  and 
other  minor  surfaces,  re- 
ceived a  more  conven- 
tional decoration  of 
crosses,  monograms,  and 
set  patterns. 

The  walls  throughout 
were  sheathed  with  slabs 
of  rare  marble  in  panels 
so  disposed  that  the  vein- 
ing  should  produce  sym- 
metrical figures.  The 
panels  were  framed  in 
billet-mouldings,  derived 
perhaps  from  classic 
dentils;  the  billets  or  pro- 
jections on  one  side  the 

moulding  coming  opposite  the  spaces  on  the  other.     This  seems 
to  have  been  a  purely  Byzantine  feature. 

CARVED  DETAILS.  Internally  the  different  stories  were 
marked  by  horizontal  bands  and  cornices  of  white  or  inlaid  marble 
richly  carved.  The  arch-soffits,  the  archivolts  or  bands  around 
the  arches,  and  the  spandrils  between  them  were  covered  with 
minute  and  intricate  incised  carving.  The  motives  used,  though 
based  on  the  acanthus  and  anthemion,  were  given  a  wholly  new 
aspect.  The  relief  was  low  and  Hat,  the  leaves  sharp  and 
crowded,  and  the  effect  rich  and  lacelike,  rather  than  vigorous. 


PIG.    72. SPANIJRIL.       HAGIA    SOPHIA. 


126 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


It  was,  however,  well  adapted  to  the  covering  of  large  areas 
where  general  effect  was  more  important  tlfen  detail.  Even  the 
capitals  were  treated  in  the  same  spirit.  The  impost-block  was 
almost  universal,  except  where  its  use  was  rendered  unnecessary 
by  giving  to  the  capital  itself  the  massive  pyramidal  form  required 
to  receive  properly  the  spring  of  the  arch  or  vault.  In  such  cases 
(more  frequent  in  Constantinople  than  elsewhere)  the  surface  of 
the  capital  was  simply  covered  with  incised  carving  of  foliage, 
basketwork,  monograms,  etc.;  rudimentary  volutes  in  a  few  cases 
recalling  classic  traditions  (Figs.  72,  73).  The  mouldings  were 
weak  and  poorly  executed,  and  the  vigorous  profiles  of  classic 

cornices  were  only  re- 
motely suggested  by  the 
characterless  aggregations 
of  mouldings  which  took 
their  place. 

PLANS.  The  remains 
of  Byzantine  architecture 
are  almost  exclusively 
of  churches  and  baptis- 
teries, but  the  plans  of 
these  are  exceedingly 
varied.  The  first  radical 
departure  from  the  basil- 
ica-type seems  to  have 
been  the  adoption  of  cir- 
cular or  polygonal  plans, 
such  as  had  usually 
served  only  for  tombs  and 
baptisteries.  The  Bap- 
tistery of  St.  John  at  Ravenna  (early  fifth  century)  is  classed 
by  many  authorities  as  a  Byzantine  monument.  In  the  early 
years  of  the  sixth  century  the  adoption  of  this  model  had 
become  quite  general,  and  with  it  the  development  of  domical 


.-J. CAPITAL    WITH    IMI'i 

S.    VITAI.E. 


BYZANTINE   ARCHITECTURE. 


127 


FIG.    74. ST.    SERGIUS,    CON- 
STANTINOPLE. 


design  began  to  advance.  The  church  of  St.  Sergius  at  Con- 
stantinople (Fig.  74),  originally  joined  to  a  short  basilica  dedi- 
cated to  St.  Bacchus  (afterward  destroyed  by  the  Turks),  as  in 
the  double  church  at  Kelat  Seman,  was  built  about  520;  that  of 
San  Vitale  at  Ravenna  was  begun  a 
few  years  later;  both  are  domical 
churches  on  an  octagonal  plan,  with 
an  exterior  aisle.  Semicircular  niches 
— four  in  St.  Sergius  and  eight  in  San 
Yitale — projecting  into  the  aisle,  en- 
large somewhat  the  area  of  the  central 
space  and  give  variety  to  the  internal 
effect.  The  origin  of  this  character- 
istic feature  may  be  traced  to  the  eight 
niches  of  the  Pantheon,  through  such 
intermediate  examples  as  the  temple 
of  Minerva  Medica  at  Rome.*  The 

true  pendentive  does  not  appear  in  the  two  churches  mentioned 
above.     Timidly  employed  up  to  that  time  in  small  structures, 

it  received  a  remarkable 
development  in  the  mag- 
nificent church  of  Hagia 
Sophia,  built  by  Anthemius 
of  Tralles  and  Isodorus  of 
Miletus,  under  Justinian, 
532-538  A.D.  In  the  plan 
of  this  marvelous  edifice 
(Fig.  76)  the  dome  rests 
upon  four  mighty  arches 
FI<;.  75. -PLAN  OF  s.  VITALB.  RAVENNA.  bounding  a  scjuarc,  into  two 

*  The  churches  of  St.  George  at  F./ra  and  the  Cathedral  of 
Bozrah,  both  in  Syria  (sec  p.  117  and  Figure  70)  belong  also  to 
this  group  and  time;  as  also  San  Loren/o  at  Milan,  and  the  ad- 
joining baptistery  and  Chapel  of  St.  Aquilin. 


128 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


of  which  open  the  half-domes  of   semicircular  apses.      These 
apses  are  penetrated  and  extended  each  by  two  smaller  niches 

and  a  central  arch,  and  the  whole 
vast  nave,  measuring  over  200 X 
100  feet,  is  Hanked  by  enormously 
wide  aisles  connecting  at  the  front 
with  a  majestic  narthex.  Huge 
transverse  buttresses,  as  in  the  Ba- 
Jf^'r-vif'-Hl  /ijftfr^'H  silica  of  Constantine  (with  whose 

]r  i    ~y   i!  n[j\  ,'ijp  j!  y'       n 

fa'--'-'^  \  •'  :jyL:.'.:.-Jj       structural   design    this    building 

^•J.....V«_^r: i^f 

shows  striking  affinities),  divide 
the  aisles  each  into  three  sections. 
The  plan  suggests  that  of  St.  Ser- 
gius  cut  in  two,  with  a  lofty  dome 
on  pendentives  over  a  square  plan 
inserted  between  the  halves.  Thus 
was  secured  a  noble  and  unob- 
structed hall  of  unrivalled  beauty,  covered  by  a  combination  of 
half-domes  increasing  in  span  and  height  as  they  lead  up  suc- 
cessively to  the  stupendous  central  vault,  which  rises  180  feet 
into  the  air  and  fitly  crowns  the  whole.  The  imposing  effect  of 
this  low-curved  but  loftily  poised  dome,  resting  upon  a  crown 
of  windows,  its  summit  visible  from  every  point  of  the  nave  (as 


PIG.    76. I'LAN    OF    HAGIA     SOPHIA. 


FIG.    77. SUCTION    OF    IIAGIA    bUl'HIA. 


BYZANTINE   ARCHITECTURE.  131 

may  be  easily  seen  from  an  examination  of  the  section,  Fig. 
77),  is  not  surpassed  in  any  interior  ever  erected. 

The  two  lateral  arches  under  the  dome  are  filled  by  clearstory 
walls  pierced  by  twelve  windows,  and  resting  on  arcades  in  two 
stories  carried  by  magnificent  columns  taken  from  ancient  ruins. 
These  separate  the  nave  from  the  two-storied  side-aisles,  which 
are  vaulted  with  a  remarkable  variety  of  groined  vaults.  All 
the  masses  are  disposed  with  studied  reference  to  the  complex 
thrusts  exerted  by  the  dome  and  other  vaults.  That  the  earth- 
quakes of  nearly  fourteen  centuries  have  not  destroyed  the 
church  is  the  best  evidence  of  the  sufficiency  of  these  precautions. 

Not  less  remarkable  than  the  noble  planning  and  construction 
of  this  church  was  the  treatment  of  scale  and  decoration  in  its 
interior  design.  It  is  as  conspicuously  the  masterpiece  of 
Byzantine  architecture  as  the  Parthenon  was  of  the  classic  Greek. 
With  little  external  beauty,  it  is  internally  one  of  the  most  per- 
fectly composed  and  beautifully  decorated  halls  of  worship  ever 
erected.  Instead  of  the  simplicity  of  the  Pantheon  it  displays 
the  complexity  of  an  organism  of  admirably  related  parts.  The 
division  of  the  interior  height  into  two  stories  below  the  spring  of 
the  four  arches  reduces  the  component  parts  of  the  design  to  mod- 
erate dimensions,  so  that  the  scale  of  the  whole  is  more  easily 
grasped  and  its  vast  size  emphasized  by  the  contrast.  The  walls 
are  incrusted  with  precious  marbles  up  to  the  spring  of  the  vault- 
ing; the  capitals,  spandrils,  and  soffits  are  richly  and  minutely 
carved  with  incised  ornament,  and  all  the  vaults  covered  with 
splendid  mosaics.  Dimmed  by  the  lapse  of  centuries  and  disfig- 
ured by  the  vandalism  of  the  Moslems,  this  noble  interior,  by  the 
harmony  of  its  coloring  and  its  impressive  grandeur,  is  one  of  the 
masterpieces  of  all  time  (Fig.  78). 

LATER  CHURCHES.  After  the  sixth  century  no  monuments 
were  built  at  all  rivalling  in  scale  the  creations  of  the  former 
period.  The  later  churches  were,  with  few  exceptions,  relatively 
small  and  trivial.  Neither  the  plan  nor  the  general  aspect  of 


132 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


Hagia  Sophia  seems  to  have  been  imitated  in  these  later  works. 
The  crown  of  dome-windows  was  replaced  by  a  cylindrical  drum 
under  the  dome,  which  was  usually  of  insignificant  size.  The  ex- 
terior was  treated  more  decoratively  than  before,  by  means  of 
bands  and  incrustations  of  colored  marble,  or  alternations  of 
stone  and  brick;  and  internally  mosaic  continued  to  be  executed 
with  great  skill  and  of  great  beauty  until  the  tenth  century,  when 
the  art  rapidly  declined.  These  later  churches,  of  which  a  num- 
ber were  spared  by  the  Turks,  are,  therefore,  generally  pleasing 
and  elegant  rather  than  striking  or  imposing.  The  most  note- 
worthy is  the  Kahire  Djami  (formerly  Mone  tes  Choras),of  the 
tenth  century,  with  remarkable  mosaics  in  the  narthex-vaults. 

FOREIGN  MONUMENTS.  The  influence  of  Byzantine  art 
was  wide-spread,  both  in  Europe  and  Asia.  The  leading  city  of 
civilization  through  the  Dark  Ages,  Constantinople  influenced 
Italy  through  her  political  and  commercial  relations  with  Ra- 
venna, Genoa,  and  Venice.  The  church  of  St.  Mark  in  the 

latter  city  was  one  result  of  this  in- 
fluence (Figs.  79,  80).  Begun  in 
976  to  replace  an  earlier  church 
destroyed  by  fire,  and  largely  re- 
built between  1047  and  1071,  it 
received  through  several  centuries 
additions  not  always  Byzantine  in 
character.  Yet  it  was  mainly  the 
work  of  Byzantine  builders,  who 
copied  most  probably  the  church  of 
the  Apostles  at  Constantinople, 
built  by  Justinian.  The  pictur- 
esque but  wholly  unstructured  use 
of  columns  in  the  entrance  porches, 

the  upper  parts  of  the  facade,  the  wooden  cupolas  over  tin-  five 
domes,  and  the  pointed  arches  in  the  narthex,  are  deviations 
from  Byzantine  traditions  dating  in  part  from  the  later  Middle 


79. PLAN    OF    ST.    MARK 

VENICE. 


BYZANTINE   ARCHITECTURE. 


133 


Ages.  Nothing  could  well  be  conceived  more  irrational,  from 
a  structural  point  of  view,  than  the  accumulation  of  columns  in 
the  entrance-arches;  but  the  total  effect  is  so  picturesque  and  so 
rich  in  color,  that  its  architectural  defects  are  easily  overlooked. 
The  external  veneering  of  white  and  colored  marble  occurs  rarely 


FIO.    80. INTERIOR    OF    ST.    MARK'S. 

in  the  East,  but  became  a  favorite  practice  in  Venice,  where  it 
continued  in  use  for  five  hundred  years.  The  interior  of  St. 
Mark's,  in  some  respects  better  preserved  than  that  of  Hagia 
Sophia,  is  especially  fine  in  color,  though  not  equal  in  scale  and 
grandeur  to  the  latter  church.  With  its  five  domes  it  has  less 
unity  of  effect  than  Hagia  Sophia,  but  more  of  the  charm  of  pic- 
turesqueness,  and  its  less  brilliant  and  simpler  lighting  enhances 
the  impressiveness  of  its  more  modest  dimensions.  The  church 
of  San  Lorenzo  at  Milan,  though  greatly  altered  in  various  re- 


134  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

buildings,  may  be  classed  as  Byzantine,  with  its  octagonal  ro- 
tunda, foi.ir  apses,  and  surrounding  aisle. 

In  Russia  and  Greece  the  Byzantine  style  has  continued  to  be 
the  official  style  of  the  Greek  Church.  The  Russian  monuments 
are  for  the  most  part  of  a  somewhat  fantastic  aspect,  the  Muscov- 
ite taste  having  introduced  many  innovations  in  the  form  of  bul- 
bous domes  and  other  eccentric  details.  In  Greece  there  are  few 
large  churches,  and  some  of  the  most  interesting,  like  the  old  Ca- 
thedral at  Athens,  are  almost  toy-like  in  their  diminutiveness. 
On  Mt.  Athos  is  an  ancient  monastery  which  still  retains  its  By- 
zantine character  and  traditions.  In  Armenia  (as  at  Ani,  Etch- 
miadzin,  etc.)  are  also  interesting  examples  of  late  Armeno- 
Byzantine  architecture,  showing  applications  to  exterior  carved 
detail  of  elaborate  interlaced  ornament  looking  like  a  re-echo  of 
Celtic  MSS.  illumination,  itself,  no  doubt,  originating  in  Byzan- 
tine traditions.  But  the  greatest  and  most  prolific  offspring  of 
Byzantine  architecture  appeared  after  the  fall  of  Constantinople 
(1453)  in  the  new  mosque-architecture  of  the  victorious  Turks. 

MONUMENTS.  CONSTANTINOPLE:  St.  Sergius,  520;  Hagia 
Sophia,  532-538;  Holy  Apostles  by  Justinian  (demolished)  ; 
Holy  Peace  (St.  Irene),  by  Constantine,  rebuilt  by  Justinian,  and 
again  in  the  8th  century  by  Leo  the  Isaurian ;  Hagia  Tbeotokos, 
I2th  century  (also  called  St.  Theodore)  ;  Mone  tes  Choras  ("  Kahire 
Djami"),  loth  century;  Pantokrator ;  "  Fetiyeh  Djami."  Cisterns, 
the  "Bin  Dir  Direck  "  (1,001  columns)  and  "  Yere  Batan  Serai"; 
great  ball  of  the  Blachernre  palace.  SAI.ONICA:  Churches  of 
Divine  Wisdom  ("Aya  Sofia"),  St.  Bardias,  St.  Elins.  RAVENNA: 
San  Vitale.  527-540;  part  of  faqade  of  palace  of  Tbeodoric.  VENICE: 
St.  Mark's,  1047-15111  century;  "  Fondaco  dei  Turchi."  now  Civic 
Museum,  I2th  century.  MILAN:  San  Lorenzo,  6th  century.  Other 
churches  at  Athens  and  Mt.  Athos  ;  at  Dapbni,  Misitra,  Myra.  An- 
cyra,  Epbesus,  etc.;  Monastery  of  St.  Luke  at  Stiris;  in  Cyprus  at 
St.  Barnabas,  Peristeroma,  etc. ;  in  Armenia  at  Ala-Werdi,  Ani, 
Dighour,  Etchmiadzin,  Koutbais,  Pitzounda,  Usunlar,  etc. ;  tombs 
at  Ani,  Var/hahan,  etc.;  in  Russia  at  Kieff  (St.  Basil),  Kostroma, 
Moscow  (Assumption,  Vasili  Blagliennoi,  etc.),  Novgorod,  Tcher- 
nigoff ;  at  Kurtea  Darghish  in  Wullachia,  and  many  others. 


CHAPTER    XII. 

SASSANIAN    AND    MOHAMMEDAN    ARCHITECTURE. 
(ARABIAN,  MORESQUE,  PERSIAN,  INDIAN,  AND  TURKISH.) 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED:  Bourgoin,  Les  Arts  Arabes.  Coste, 
Monuments  du  Caire;  Monuments  modernes  de  la  Perse,  Cun- 
ningham, Archaeological  Surrey  0}  India.  Fergusson,  Indian  and 
Eastern  Architecture.  De  Forest,  Indian  Architecture  and  Orna- 
ment. Flandin  et  Coste,  Voyage  en  Perse.  Franz-Pasha,  Die 
Baukunst  des  Islam.  Gayet,  L'Art  Arabe;  UAH  Persan.  Gi- 
rault  de  Prangey,  Essai  sur  V architecture  des  Arabes  en  Espagne, 
etc.  Goury  and  Jones,  The  Alhambra.  Jacob,  Jeypore  Port/olio 
of  Architectural  Details.  Lane  Poole,  Saracenic  Art.  Le  Bon, 
IM,  civilisation  des  Arabes ;  Les  monuments  de  I'Inde.  Migeon, 
Le  Caire  (Series  of  Villes  d'Art).  Montani,  L' 'Architecture  Otto- 
mane.  Owen  Jones,  Grammar  o)  Ornament.  Parvillee,  Archi- 
tecture et  decoration  turques.  Prisse  d'Avennes,  L'Art  Arabe. 
Saladin  et  Migeon,  Manuel  d'art  mussulman.  Texier,  Descrip- 
tion de  1'Armenic,  la  Perse,  etc. 

GENERAL  SURVEY.  While  the  Byzantine  Empire  was  at 
its  zenith,  the  new  faith  of  Islam  was  conquering  Western  Asia 
and  the  Mediterranean  lands  with  a  fiery  rapidity  which  is  one  of 
the  marvels  of  history.  The  new  architectural  styles  which  grew 
up  in  the  wake  of  these  conquests,  though  differing  widely  in  con- 
ception and  detail  in  the  several  countries,  were  yet  marked  by 
common  characteristics  which  set  them  quite  apart  from  the  con- 
temporary Christian  styles.  The  predominance  of  decorative 
over  structural  considerations,  a  predilection  for  minute  surface- 
ornament,  the  absence  of  pictures  and  sculpture,  are  found  alike 


136  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

in  Arabic,  Persian,  Turkish,  and  Indian  buildings,  though  in 
varying  degree.  These  new  styles,  however,  were  at  first  almost 
entirely  the  handiwork  of  artisans  from  the  conquered  races,  and 
many  traces  of  Byzantine,  and  even  after  the  Crusades,  of  Nor- 
man and  Gothic  design,  are  recognizable  in  Moslem  architecture. 
But  the  Orientalism  of  the  conquerors  and  their  common  faith, 
tinged  with  the  poetry  and  philosophic  mysticism  of  the  Arab, 
stamped  these  works  of  Copts,  Syrians,  and  Greeks  with  an  un- 
mistakable character  of  their  own,  neither  Byzantine  nor  Early 
Christian. 

ARABIC  ARCHITECTURE.  In  the  building  of  mosques 
and  tombs,  especially  at  Cairo,  this  architecture  reached  a  re- 
markable degree  of  decorative  elegance,  and  sometimes  of  dig- 
nity. It  developed  slowly,  the  Arabs  not  being  at  the  outset  a 
race  of  builders;  the  sacred  Kaabah  at  Mecca  and  the  original 
mosque  at  Medina  hardly  deserved  to  be  called  architectural 
monuments  at  all.  The  most  important  early  works  were  the 
mosques  of  'Amrou  at  Cairo  (642,  rebuilt  and  enlarged  early  in 
the  eighth  century),  of  El  Aksah  on  the  Temple  platform  at 
Jerusalem  (691,  by  Abd-el-Melek),  and  of  El  Walid  at  Damas- 
cus (705-732,  rebuilt  since  the  fire  of  1893).  All  these  were 
simple  one-storied  structures,  with  flat  wooden  roofs  carried  on 
parallel  ranges  of  columns  supporting  pointed  arches,  the  arcades 
either  closing  one  side  of  a  square  court,  or  surrounding  it  com- 
pletely. The  long  perspectives  of  the  aisles  and  the  minute 
decoration  of  the  archivolts  and  ceilings  alone  gave  them  archi- 
tectural character.  The  beautiful  Dome  of  the  Rock  (Kubbet- 
es-Sakhrah,  miscalled  the  Mosque  of  Omar)  on  the  Temple  plat- 
form at  Jerusalem  possibly  recalls  a  Constantinian  edifice,  though 
its  present  form  is  that  given  by  Soliman  the  Magnifu  ent  in  1520- 
66,  preserving  the  original  plan  but  with  decorations  of  the  re- 
storer's time.  Its  plan  resembles  that  of  San  Stcfano  Rotondo  at 
Rome,  and  is  dearly  of  Christian  origin  (see  p.  1 16). 

The  splendid  mosque  of  Ibn  Touloun  (876-885)  was  built 


SASSANIAN   AND   MOHAMMEDAN   ARCHITECTURE.       137 


on  the  same  plan  as  that  of  Amrou,  but  with  cantoned  piers  in- 
stead of  columns  and  a  corresponding  increase  in  variety  of  per- 
spective and  richness  of  effect.  With  the  incoming  of  the  Fatim- 
ite  dynasty,  however, 
and  the  foundation  of 
the  present  city  of  Cairo 
(971),  vaulting  began 
to  take  the  place  of 
wooden  ceilings,  and 
then  appeared  the 
germs  of  those  extraor- 
dinary applications  of 
geometry  to  decorative 
design  which  were 
henceforth  to  be  the 
most  striking  feature 
of  Arabic  ornament. 
Under  the  Ayub  dy- 
nasty, which  began 
with  Salah-ed-din  (Sal- 
adin)  in  1172,  these 
elements  developed 
slowly  in  the  domical 
tombs  of  the  Kara/ah 
at  Cairo,  and  prepared 
the  way  for  the  in- 
creasing richness  and 
splendor  of  a  long  +Uikr**:  Wimkr. 

series  of  mosques,  among  which  those  of  Kalaoun  (1284-1318), 
Sultan  Hassan  (1356),  El  Mu'ayyad  (1415),  and  Kait  Bey 
(1465),  were  the  most  conspicuous  examples  (Fig.  Si).  They 
mark,  indeed,  successive  advances  in  complexity  of  planning, 
ingenuity  of  construction,  and  elegance  of  decoration.  Together 
they  constitute  an  epoch  in  Arabic  architecture,  which  coincides 


FIG.    8l. MOSrH'K    OP    Sl'LTAM    HASSAN',    CAIRO: 

SANCTUARY. 


138  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

closely  with  the  development  of  Gothic  vaulted  architecture  in 
Europe,  both  in  the  stages  and  the  duration  of  its  advances. 

The  larger  mosques  of  these  three  centuries  are,  like  the  mediae- 
val monasteries,  complex  groups  of  buildings  of  various  sorts 
about  a  central  court  of  ablutions.  The  tomb  of  the  founder, 
residences  for  the  imams,  or  priests,  schools  (medresseh),  and  hos- 
pitals (mdristdn)  rival  in  importance  the  prayer-chamber.  This 
last  is,  however,  the  real  focus  of  interest  and  splendor;  in  some 
cases,  as  in  Sultan  Hassan,  it  is  a  simple  barrel-vaulted  chamber 
open  to  the  court;  in  others  an  oblong  arcaded  hall  with  many 
small  domes;  or  again  a  square  hall  covered  with  a  high  pointed 
dome  on  pendentives  of  intricately  beautiful  stalactite-work  (see 
below).  The  ceremonial  requirements  of  the  mosque  were  simple. 
The  court  must  have  its  fountain  of  ablutions  in  the  centre.  The 
prayer-hall,  or  mosque  proper,  must  have  its  miJirdb,  or  niche, 
to  indicate  the  kibleh,  the  direction  of  Mecca;  and  its  number,  or 
high,  slender  pulpit  for  the  reading  of  the  Kc'min.  These  were 
the  only  absolutely  indispensable  features  of  a  mosque,  but  as 
early  as  the  ninth  century  the  minaret  was  added,  from  which  the 
call  to  prayer  could  be  sounded  over  the  city  by  the  mueddln. 
Not  until  the  Ayubite  period,  however,  did  it  begin  to  assume 
those  forms  of  varied  and  picturesque  grace  which  lend  to  Cairo 
so  much  of  its  architectural  charm. 

ARCHITECTURAL  DETAILS.  While  Arabic  architecture,  in 
Syria  and  Egypt  alike,  possesses  more  decorative  than  construc- 
tive originality,  the  beautiful  forms  of  its  domes,  pendentives,  and 
minarets,  the  simple  majesty  of  the  great  pointed  barrel-vaults  of 
the  Hassan  mosque  and  similar  monuments,  and  the  graceful 
lines  of  the  universally  used  pointed  arch,  prove  the  Coptic  build- 
ers and  their  later  Arabic  successors  to  have  been  architects  of 
great  ability.  The  Arabic  domes,  as  seen  both  in  the  mosques 
and  in  the  remarkable  group  of  tombs  commonly  called  "tombs 
of  the  Khalifs,"  are  peculiar  not  only  in  their  pointed  outlines  and 
their  rich  external  decoration  of  interlaced  geometric  motives,  but 


SASSANIAN   AND    MOHAMMEDAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


'39 


still  more  in  the  external  and  internal  treatment  of  the  penden- 
tives,  exquisitely  decorated  with  stalactite  ornament.  This  orna- 
ment, derived,  apparently,  from  a  combination  of  minute  corbels 
with  rows  of  small  niches,  and  presumably  of  Persian  origin, 
was  finally  developed 
into  a  system  of  extraor- 
dinary intricacy,  ap- 
plicable alike  to  the  top- 
ping of  a  niche  or  panel, 
as  in  the  great  doorways 
of  the  mosques,  and  to 
the  bracketing  out  of 
minaret  galleries  (Figs. 
82,83).  Its  applications 
show  a  bewildering  va- 
riety of  forms  and  an 
extraordinary  aptitude 
for  intricate  geometrical 
design. 

DECORATION.  Geom- 
etry, indeed,  vied  with 
the  love  of  color  in 
its  hold  on  the  Arabic 
taste.  Ceiling-beams 

were  carved  into  highly  ornamental  forms  before  receiving  their 
rich  color-decoration  of  red,  green,  blue,  and  gold.  The  doors 
and  the  mimber  were  framed  in  geometric  patterns  with  slender 
intersecting  bars  forming  complicated  star-panelling.  The  vous- 
soirs  of  arches  were  cut  into  curious  interlocking  forms;  door- 
ways and  niches  were  capped  with  stalactite  corbelling,  and 
pavements  and  wall-incrustations,  whether  of  marble  or  tiling, 
combined  brilliancy  and  harmony  of  color  with  the  perplexing 
beauty  of  interlaced  star-and-polygon  patterns  of  marvellous 
intricacy.  Stained  glass  added  to  the  interior  color-effect,  the 


FIG.    82. MOSQUE    OF    KAiY    BEY,    CAIRO 


140  HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

patterns  being  perforated  in  plaster,  with  a  bit  of  colored  glass 
set  into  each  perforation — a  device  not  very  durable,  perhaps, 
but  singularly  decorative. 

OTHER  WORKS.  Few  of  the  mediaeval  Arabic  palaces  have 
remained  to  our  time.  That  they  were  adorned  with  a  splendid 
prodigality  appears  from  contemporary  accounts.  This  splendor 
was  internal  rather  than  external;  the  palace,  like  all  the  larger 
and  richer  dwellings  in  the  East,  surrounded  one  or  more  courts, 
and  presented  externally  an  almost  unbroken  wall.  The  fountain 
in  the  chief  court,  the  diu'dn  (a  great,  vaulted  reception-chamber 
opening  upon  the  court  and  raised  slightly  above  it),  the  dar,  or 
men's  court,  rigidly  separated  from  the  hareem  for  the  women, 
were  and  are  universal  elements  in  these  great  dwellings.  The 
more  common  city-houses  show  as  their  most  striking  features 
successively  corbelled-out  stories  and  broad  wooden  eaves  with 
lattice-screens  covering  single  windows,  or  almost  a  whole  facade, 
composed  of  spindle  work  (mousliarabiye),  in  designs  of  great 
beauty. 

The  fountains,  gates,  and  minor  works  of  the  Arabs  display  the 
same  beauty  in  decoration  and  color,  the  same  general  forms  and 
details  which  characterize  the  larger  works,  but  it  is  impossible 
here  to  particularize  further  with  regard  to  them. 

MORESQUE.  Elsewhere  in  Northern  Africa  the  Arabs  pro- 
duced important  works  in  less  abundance  than  in  Egypt,  and 
these  are  not  so  well  preserved  nor  so  well  known.  Constructive 
design  would  appear  to  have  been  there  even  more  completely 
subordinated  to  decoration;  tiling  and  plaster-relief  took  the 
place  of  more  architectural  elements  and  materials,  while  horse- 
shoe and  cusped  arches  were  substituted  for  the  simpler  and  more 
architectural  pointed  arch  (I'ig.  ^4).  The  dome  never  found 
favor  in  Xorth  Africa,  the  great  mosques  of  Kairouan,  Tlemcen, 
Sfax,  and  Algiers  showing  the  primitive  plan  of  Ibn  Touloun, 
with  occasional  small  domes  over  the  centre  or  at  the  ends.  The 
courts  of  palaces  and  public  buildings  were  surrounded  by 


SASSANIAN   AND    MOHAMMEDAN   ARCHITECTURE.       141 


ranges  of  horseshoe  arches  on  slender  columns;  these  last  being 
provided  with  capitals  of  a  form  rarely  seen  in  Cairo.  It  is  note- 
worthy that  the  decora- 
tion of  these  mosques 
and  palaces  is.  less  elab- 
orate than  that  of  the 
derived  style  in  Spain. 
Towers  were  built  of 
much  more  massive  de- 
sign than  the  Cairo  min- 
arets, usually  with  a 
square,  almost  solid 
shaft  and  a  more  open 
lantern  at  the  top,  some- 
times in  several  dimin- 
ishing stories;  they  are 
strikingly  effective 
works. 

HISPANO-MORESQUE. 
The  most  ornate  phase 
of  this  branch  of  Arabic 
architecture  is  found  not 
in  Africa  but  in  Spain, 
which  was  overrun  in 
710-713  by  the  Moors, 
who  established  there 
the  independent  Khali- 
fate  of  Cordova.  This 
was  later  split  up  into 
petty  kingdoms, of  which 
the  most  important  were 

(iranada,  Seville,  Toledo,  and  Valencia..  This  dismemberment 
of  the  Khalifate  led  in  time  to  the  loss  of  these  cities,  which  were 
one  by  one  recovered  by  the  Christians  during  the  fourteenth 


ill/ 

mr    -_L 


FIO.    83. MOORISH    DETAIL,    AI.HAMBUA. 

Shunting  stalactitf  <i>K/  f>i-rf<>ruteii  work, 
itiirii/t  ,-HS/>I'</  t»>  /;.  llis(>ano-M(irfsquc  caf> 
n/x,  am/  </i-ct>raftTf  inscriptions. 


142 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


and  fifteenth  centuries;  the  capture  of  Granada,  in  1492,  finally 
destroying  the  Moorish  rule. 

The  dominion  of  the  Moors  in  Spain  was  marked  by  a  high 
civilization  and  an  extraordinary  activity  in  building.  The  style 
they  introduced  became  the  national  style  in  the  regions  they  oc- 
cupied, and  even  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Moors  was  used  in 
buildings  erected  by  Christians  and  by  Jews.  The  "House  of 
Pilate,"  at  Seville,  is  an  example  of  this,  and  the  general  use 

of  the  Moorish  style  in 
Jewish  synagogues,  down 
to  our  own  day,  both 
in  Spain  and  abroad,  or- 
iginated in  the  erection 
of  synagogues  for  the 
Jews  in  Spain  by  Moor- 
ish artisans  and  in  Moor- 
ish style,  both  during  and 
after  the  period  of  Mos- 
lem supremacy. 

Besides  innumerable 
mosques,  castles,  bridges, 
aqueducts,  gates,  and 
fountains,  the  Moors 
erected  several  monu- 
ments of  remarkable  size 
and  magnificence.  Spe- 
cially worthy  of  notice 
among  them  are  the 
(ireat  Mosque  at  Cor- 
dova, the  Alcazars  of  Seville  and  Malaga,  the  Giralda  at  Seville, 
and  the  Alhambra  at  Granada. 

The  Mosque  at  Cordova,  begun  in  786  by  'Abd-cr-Rah- 
man,  enlarged  in  876,  and  again  by  Kl  Mansour  in  976,  is  a  vast 
arcaded  hall  375  feet  X  420  feet  in  extent,  but  only  30  feet  high 


4. INTERIOR    OF    THE    GREAT  MOSQUE    AT 

CORDOVA. 


SASSANIAN   AND    MOHAMMEDAN   ARCHITECTURE.      143 

(Fig.  84).  The  rich  wooden  ceiling  rests  upon  seventeen  rows  of 
thirty  to  thirty-three  columns  each,  and  two  intersecting  rows  of 
piers,  all  carrying  horseshoe  arches  in  two  superposed  ranges,  a 
large  portion  of  those  about  the  sanctuary  being  cusped,  the 
others  plain,  except  for  the  alternation  of  color  in  the  voussoirs. 
The  mihrab  niche  is  particularly  rich  in  its  minutely  carved  in- 
crustations and  mosaics,  and  a  dome  ingeniously  formed  by  inter- 
secting ribs  covers  the  sanctuary  before  it.  This  form  of  dome 
occurs  frequently  in  Spain. 

The  Alcazars  at  Seville  and  Malaga,  which  have  been  re- 
stored in  recent  years,  present  to-day  a  fairly  correct  counterpart 
of  the  castle-palaces  of  the  thirteenth  century.  They  display  the 
same  general  conceptions  and  decorative  features  as  the  Alham- 
bra,  which  they  antedate.  The  Giralda  at  Seville  is,  on  the 
other  hand,  unique  among  Spanish  monuments,  though  resem- 
bling many  Moroccan  towers.  It  is  a  lofty  rectangular  tower,  its 
exterior  panelled  and  covered  with  a  species  of  quarry-ornament 
in  relief;  it  terminated  originally  in  two  or  three  diminishing 
stages  or  lanterns,  which  were  replaced  in  the  sixteenth  century 
by  the  present  Renaissance  belfry. 

The  Alhambra  is  universally  considered  to  be  the  master- 
piece of  Hispano-Moresque  art,  partly  no  doubt  on  account  of  its 
excellent  preservation.  It  is  most  interesting  as  an  example  of  the 
splendid  citadel-palaces  built  by  the  Moorish  conquerors,  as  well 
as  for  its  gorgeous  color-decoration  of  minute  quarry-ornament 
stamped  or  moulded  in  the  wet  plaster  wherever  the  walls  are  not 
wainscoted  with  tiles.  It  was  begun  in  1248  by  Mohammed- 
ben-Al-Hamar,  enlarged  in  1279  by  his  successor,  and  again  in 
1306,  when  its  moscjue  was  built.  Its  plan  (Fig.  85)  shows  two 
large  courts  and  a  smaller  one  next  the  mosque,  with  three  great 
square  chambers  and  many  of  minor  importance.  Light  arcades 
surround  the  Court  of  the  Lions  with  its  fountain,  and  adorn  tin- 
ends  of  the  other  chief  court;  and  the  stalactite  pendentive,  rare 
in  Moorish  work,  appears  in  the  "Hall  of  Ambassadors"  and 


144 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


some  other  parts  of  the  edifice.  But  its  chief  glory  is  its  ornamen- 
tation, less  durable,  less  architectural  than  that  of  the  Cairene 
buildings,  but  making  up  for  this  in  delicacy  and  richness.  Mi- 
nute vine-patterns  and  Arabic  inscriptions  are  interwoven  with 

waving  intersecting 
lines,  forming  a  net- 
like  framework,  to 
all  of  which  deep 
red,  blue,  black,  and 
gold  give  an  inde- 
scribable richness  of 
effect. 

The  Moors  also 
overran  Sicily  in  the 
ninth  century,  but 
while  their  architec- 
ture there  profound- 
ly influenced  that  of 
the  Christians  who, 
after  recovering 
Sicily  in  1090,  copied 

the  style  of  the  conquered  Moslems,  the  only  examples  of  the 
original  Moorish  architecture  sufficiently  important  to  claim 
mention  in  so  brief  a  notice  arc  the  two  buildings  called  la  Ziza 
and  la  Cuba,  small  Moorish  palaces  at  Palermo  remodelled  in 
the  twelfth  century  by  the  Norman  counts. 

SASSANIAN.  The  Sassanian  empire,  which  during  the  four 
centuries  from  226  to  641  A.D.  had  withstood  Rome  and  extended 
its  own  sway  almost  to  India,  left  on  Persian  soil  a  number  of  in- 
teresting monuments  which  powerfully  influenced  the  Mohamme- 
dan style  of  that  region.  The  Sassanian  buildings  appear  to  have 
been  principally  palaces,  and  were  all  vaulted.  With  their  long 
barrel-vaulted  halls,  combined  with  square  domical  chambers, 
as  in  Firouz-Abad  and  Serbistan,  they  exhibit  reminiscences  of 


FIG.    85. PLAN    OF    THE    ALHAMBRA. 

A ,  Half  of  A  inbcissadors;  a,  Mosque:  I',  Court  of 
Mosque;  c,  Sitf.i  dflla  Rarca:  </,  d,  liatlis;  e,  Hall 
of  the  Tuio  Sisters ;  f,  f,  f,  Hall  of  t lie  Tribunal;  g, 
Hall  of  the  Abenccrrages. 


SASSANIAN   AND   MOHAMMEDAN  ARCHITECTURE.       145 

antique  Assyrian  tradition.  The  ancient  Persian  use  of  columns 
was  almost  entirely  abandoned,  but  doors  and  windows  were  still 
treated  with  the  banded  frames  and  cavetto-cornices  of  Persepolis 
and  Susa.  The  Sassanians  employed  with  these  exterior  details 
others  derived  perhaps  from  Syrian  and  Byzantine  sources. 
A  sort  of  engaged  buttress-column  and  blind  arches  repeated 
somewhat  aimlessly  over  a  whole  facade  were  characteristic 
features;  still  more  so  the  huge  arches,  elliptical  or  horse- 
shoe shaped,  which  formed  the  entrances  to  these  palaces,  as  in 
the  Tak-Kesra  at  Ctesiphon,  and  from  which  Moorish  architec- 
ture perhaps  derived  its  preference  for  the  horse-shoe  arch.  Or- 
namental details  of  a  debased  Roman  type  appear,  mingled  with 
more  gracefully  flowing  leaf-patterns  resembling  early  Christian 
Syrian  carving.  The  last  great  monument  of  this  style  was  the 
palace  at  Mashita  in  Moab,  begun  by  the  last  Chosroes  (627),  but 
never  finished,  an  imposing  and  richly  ornamental  structure  about 
500X170  feet,  occupying  the  centre  of  a  great  court. 

PERSIAN-MOSLEM  ARCHITECTURE.  These  Sassanian  pal- 
aces must  have  strongly  influenced  Persian  architecture  after  the 
Arab  conquest  in  641.  For  although  the  architecture  of  the  first 
six  centuries  after  that  date  suffered  almost  absolute  extinction  at 
the  hands  of  the  Mongols  under  Genghis  Khan,  the  traces  of  Sas- 
sanian influence  are  still  perceptible  in  the  monuments  that  rose 
in  the  following  centuries.  The  dome  and  vault,  the  colossal 
portal-arches,  and  the  use  of  brick  and  tile  are  evidences  of  this 
influence,  bearing  no  resemblance  to  Byzantine  or  Arabic  types. 
The  Moslem  monuments  of  Persia  proper,  so  far  as  their  dates 
can  be  ascertained,  are  all  subsequent  to  1200,  except  a  number 
of  ruined  tombs,  some  of  them  near  Bagdad  with  singular  py- 
ramidal roofs.  The  ruined  mosque  at  Tabriz  (1300)  and  the  beau- 
tiful domical  Tomb  at  Sultaniyeh  (1313)  belong  to  the  Mogul 
period.  They  show  all  the  essential  features  of  the  later  architec- 
ture of  the  Sufis  (1499-1694),  during  whose  dynastic  period  were 
built  the  still  more  splendid  and  more  celebrated  Meidan  or 


146  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

square,  the  great  mosque  of  Mesjid  Shah,  the  Bazaar  and  the 
College  or  Medress  of  Hussein  Shah,  all  at  Ispahan,  and  many 
other  important  monuments  at  Ispahan,  Bagdad,  and  Teheran. 
In  these  structures  four  elements  especially  claim  attention;  the 
pointed  bulbous  dome,  the  round  minaret,  the  portal-arch  rising 
above  the  adjacent  portions  of  the  building,  and  the  use  of  en- 
amelled terra-cotta  tiles  as  an  external  decoration.  To  these  may 
be  added  the  ogee  arch  (ogee=  double-reversed  curve),  as  an  oc- 
casional feature.  The  vaulting  is  most  ingenious  and  beautiful, 
and  its  forms,  whether  executed  in  brick  or  in  plaster,  are  suffi- 
ciently varied  without  resort  to  the  perplexing  complications  of 
stalactite  work,  although  the  stalactite  is  freely  used  in  interior 
decoration.  In  Persian  decoration  the  most  striking  qualities 
are  the  harmony  of  blended  color,  broken  up  into  minute  pat- 
terns and  more  subdued  in  tone  than  in  the  Hispano-Moresque, 
and  the  preference  of  flowing  lines  and  floral  ornament  to  the 
geometric  puzzles  of  Arabic  design.  Persian  architecture  influ- 
enced both  Turkish  and  Indo-Moslem  art,  which  owe  to  it  a  large 
part  of  their  decorative  charm. 

Persian  architecture  is  by  no  means  confined  to  modern  Persia; 
some  of  its  most  striking  productions  are  to  be  seen  in  Bagdad, 
Mosul,  Bokhara,  Merv,  and  Samarkhand. 

INDO-MOSLEM.  The  Mohammedan  architecture  of  India  is 
so  distinct  from  all  the  native  Indian  styles  and  so  related  to  the 
art  of  Persia,  if  not  to  that  of  the  Arabs,  that  it  properly  belongs 
here  rather  than  in  the  later  chapter  on  Oriental  styles.  It  was  in 
the  eleventh  century  that  the  states  of  India  first  began  to  fall  be- 
fore Mohammedan  invaders,  but  not  until  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 
century  that  the  great  Mogul  dynasty  was  established  in  Hindo- 
stan  as  the  dominant  power.  During  the  intervening  period  local 
schools  of  Moslem  architecture  were  developing  in  the  Pathan 
country  of  Northern  India  (1193-1 554),  in  Jaunpore  andGujerat 
(1396-1572),  in  Scinde,  where  Persian  influence  predominated; 
in  Kalburgah  and  Bidar  (1347-1426).  These  schools  differed 


SASSAXIAN  AND   MOHAMMEDAN   ARCHITECTURE.       147 


considerably  in  spirit  and  detail;  but  under  the  Moguls  (1494- 
1706)  there  was  less  diversity,  and  to  this  dynasty  we  owe  many 
of  the  most  magnificent  mosques  and  tombs  of  India,  among 
which  those  of  Bijapur  retain  a  marked  and  distinct  style  of  their 
own. 

The  Mohammedan  monuments  of  India  are  characterized  by 
a  grandeur  and  amplitude  of  disposition,  a  symmetry  and  monu- 
mental dignity  of  design 
which  distinguish  them 
widely  from  the  pictur- 
esque but  sometimes 
trivial  buildings  of  the 
Arabs  and  Moors.  Less 
dependent  on  color  than 
the  Moorish  or  Persian 
structures,  they  are  usually 
built  of  marble,  or  of 
marble  and  sandstone, 
giving  them  an  air  of  per- 
manence and  solidity 
wanting  in  other  Moslem 
styles  except  the  Turkish. 

The  dome,  the  round  minaret,  the  pointed  arch,  and  the  colossal 
portal-arch  are  universal,  as  in  Persia,  and  enamelled  tiles  are 
also  used,  but  chiefly  for  interior  decoration.  Externally  the 
more  dignified  if  less  resplendent  decoration  of  surface  carving 
is  used,  in  patterns  of  minute  and  graceful  scrolls,  leaf  forms, 
and  Arabic  inscriptions  covering  large  surfaces.  The  Arabic 
stalactite  pendentive,  star-panelling  and  geometrical  interlace 
are  less  frequent.  The  dome  on  the  square  plan  is  common,  but 
neither  the  Byzantine  nor  the  Arabic  pendentive  is  used,  strik- 
ing and  original  combinations  of  vaulting  surfaces,  of  corner 
squinches,  of  corbelling  and  ribs,  being  used  in  its  place. 
Many  of  the  Pathan  domes  and  arches  at  Delhi,  Ajmir,  Ahmeda- 


PIG.  86. TOMB   OP    MAHMUD,    BIJAPUR. 

SECTION. 


148  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

bad,  Shepree,  etc.,  are  built  in  horizontal  or  corbelled  courses 
supported  on  slender  columns,  and  exert  no  thrust  at  all,  so 
that  they  are  vaults  only  in  form,  like  the  dome  of  the  Tholos 
of  Atreus  (Fig.  24).  The  most  imposing  and  original  of  all 
Indian  domes  are  those  of  the  Jumma  Musjid  and  of  the  Tomb 
of  Mahmud,  both  at  Bijapur,  the  latter  137  feet  in  span  (Fig.  86). 
These  two  monuments,  indeed,  with  the  Mogul  Taj  Mahal  at 
Agra,  not  only  deserve  the  first  rank  among  Indian  monuments, 
but  in  constructive  science  combined  with  noble  proportions  and 
exquisite  beauty  are  hardly,  if  at  all,  surpassed  by  the  greatest 
triumphs  of  western  art.  The  Indo-Moslem  architects,  moreover, 
especially  those  of  the  Mogul  period,  excelled  in  providing  artistic 
settings  for  their  monuments.  Immense  platforms,  superb 
courts,  imposing  flights  of  steps,  noble  gateways,  minarets  to 
mark  the  angles  of  enclosures,  and  landscape  gardening  of  a  high 
order,  enhance  greatly  the  effect  of  the  great  mosques,  tombs,  and 
palaces  of  Agra,  Delhi,  Futtehpore  Sikhri,  Allahabad,  Secundra, 
etc. 

The  most  notable  monuments  of  the  Moguls  are  the  Mosque 
of  Akbar  (1556-1605)  at  Futtehpore  Sikhri,  the  tomb  of  that 
sultan  at  Secundra,  and  his  palace  at  Allahabad;  the  Pearl 
Mosque  at  Agra  and  the  Jumma  Musjid  at  Delhi,  one  of  the 
largest  and  noblest  of  Indian  mosques,  both  built  by  Shah  Jehan 
about  1650;  his  immense  palace  group  in  the  same  city;  and 
finally  the  unrivalled  mausoleum,  the  Taj  Mahal  at  Agra, 
built  during  his  lifetime  as  a  festal  hall,  to  serve  as  his  tomb  after 
death  (Fig.  87).  This  last  is  the  pearl  of  Indian  architecture, 
though  it  is  said  to  have  been  designed  by  a  luiropean  architect, 
French  or  Italian.  It  is  a  white  marble  structure  185  feet  square, 
centred  in  a  court  313  feet  square,  forming  a  platform  18  feet 
high.  The  corners  of  this  court  are  marked  by  elegant  minarets, 
and  the  whole  is  dominated  by  the  exquisite  white  marble  dome, 
58  feet  in  diameter,  80  feet  high,  internally  rising  over  four  domi- 
cal corner  chapels,  and  covered  externally  by  a  lofty  marble  bulb- 


SASSAXIAN    AND    MOHAMMEDAN   ARCHITECTURE.       149 

dome  on  a  high  drum.  The  rich  materials,  beautiful  execution, 
and  exquisite  inlaying  of  this  mausoleum  are  worthy  of  its  majes- 
tic design.  On  the  whole,  in  the  architecture  of  the  Moguls  in 
Bijapur,  Agra,  and  Delhi,  Mohammedan  architecture  reaches  its 
highest  expression  in  the  totality  and  balance  of  its  qualities  of 


FIT,.    87. TAJ    MAHAL,    AT.RA. 

construction,  composition,  detail,  ornament,  and  settings.  The 
later  monuments  show  the  decline  of  the  style  and,  though  often 
rich  and  imposing,  are  lacking  in  refinement  and  originality. 

TURKISH.  Turkish  art  begins  with  the  establishment  of 
the  Seljuk  Sultanate  of  Iconium  in  Asia  Minor  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. The  mosques  and  khans  erected  in  this  period  at  Konieh 
(Iconium)  and  Sivas  are  all  in  ruins,  but  exhibit  a  splendid 
wealth  of  design  in  stone,  borrowing  largely  but  not  wholly  from 
Persian  sources. 


I5O  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

In  1299  the  Ottoman  Turks  overran  the  Seljuk  empire,  already 
crushed  by  the  Mongols,  and  established  a  new  capital  in  Bi- 
thynia  under  Osman  I.  at  Brusa,  where  they  built  many  mosques 
and  tombs,  partly  with  the  help  of  Persian  artists.  They  had 
already  for  a  century  been  occupying  the  fairest  portions  of  the 
Byzantine  empire  when,  in  1453,  they  became  masters  of  Con- 
stantinople. Hagia  Sophia  was  at  once  occupied  as  their  chief 
mosque,  and  such  of  the  other  churches  as  were  spared  were 
divided  between  the  victors  and  the  vanquished.  The  con- 
queror, Mehmet  II.,  at  the  same  time  set  about  the  building  of  a 
new  mosque,  entrusting  the  design  to  a  Byzantine,  Christodoulos, 
whom  he  directed  to  reproduce,  with  some  modifications,  the 
design  of  the  "Great  Church" — Hagia  Sophia.  The  type  thus 
officially  adopted  has  ever  since  remained  the  controlling  model  of 
Turkish  mosque  design,  so  far,  at  least,  as  general  plan  and  con- 
structive principles  are  concerned.  Thus  the  conquering  Turks, 
educated  by  a  century  of  study  and  imitation  of  Byzantine  models 
in  Brusa,  Nicomedia,  Smyrna,  Adrianople,  and  other  cities  earlier 
subjugated,  did  what  the  Byzantines  had,  during  nine  centuries, 
failed  to  do.  They  grasped  the  possibilities  of  the  Hagia  Sophia 
type,  and  developed  therefrom  a  style  of  architecture  of  great  no- 
bility and  dignity.  The  low-curved  dome  with  its  crown  of  but- 
tressed windows,  the  plain  spherical  pendentives,  the  great  apses  at 
each  end,  covered  by  half-domes  and  penetrated  by  smaller  niches, 
the  four  massive  piers  with  their  projecting  buttress-masses  ex- 
tending across  the  broad  lateral  aisles,  the  narthex  and  the  arcaded 
atrium  in  front — all  these  appear  in  the  great  Turkish  mosques 
of  Constantinople.  In  the  Conqueror's  mosque,  however,  two 
apses  with  half-domes  replace  the  lateral  galleries  and  clearstory 
of  Hagia  Sophia,  making  a  perfectly  quadripartite  plan,  destitute 
of  the  emphasis  and  significance  of  a  plan  drawn  on  one  main 
axis  (Fig.  88).  The  same  treatment  occurs  in  the  mosque  of 
Ahmed  I.,  the  Ahmediyeh  (1608;  Fig.  89),  and  «he  Yeni 
Djami  ("New  Mosque")  at  the  port  (1665).  In  the  mosque  of 


SASSANIAN  AND   MOHAMMEDAN   ARCHITECTURE.       151 


Osman  III.  (1755)  the  reverse  change  was  effected;  the  mosque 
has  no  great  apses,  four  clearstories  filling  the  four  arches  under 
the  dome,  as  also  in  several  of  the  later  and  smaller  mosques. 
The  noble  mosque  of  Selim  and  Soliman  at  Adrianople  carries 
its  dome  upon  eight  piers,  with  alternate  half-domes  and  clear- 
stories, four  of  each.  The  greatest  and  finest  of  the  Turkish 
mosques,  the  Suleimaniyeh,  built  in  1553  by  Soliman  the  Mag- 
nificent, returned  to 
the  Byzantine  com- 
bination of  two 
half-domes  and  two 
clearstories  (Fig.  90). 
In  none  of  these 
monuments  is  there 
the  internal  magnifi- 
cence of  marble  and 
mosaic  of  the  Byzan- 
tine churches.  These 
are  only  in  a  measure  FIG 
replaced  by  Persian 
tile- wainscoting 
and  stained-glass 

windows  of  the  Arabic  type.  The  division  into  stories  and  the 
the  treatment  of  scale  are  less  well  managed  than  in  Hagia 
Sophia;  on  the  other  hand,  the  proportion  of  height  to  width  is 
generally  admirable.  The  exterior  treatment  is  unique  and 
effective;  the  massing  of  domes  and  half-domes  and  roofs  is 
artistically  arranged;  and  while  there  is  little  of  that  minute 
carved  detail  found  in  Egypt  and  India,  the  composition  of  the 
lateral  arcades,  the  domical  peristyles  of  the  courts,  and  the  grace- 
ful forms  of  the  pointed  arches,  with  alternating  voussoirs  of 
white  and  black  marble,  are  artistic  in  a  high  degree.  The  mina- 
rets are,  however,  inferior  to  those  of  Indian,  Persian,  and  Arabic 
art,  though  graceful  in  their  proportions. 


MOSQUE   OF    MEHMET    II.,    CONSTANTINOPLE. 

PLAN. 

(The  dimensions  figured  in  metres.) 


152 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


Nearly  all  the  great  mosques  are  accompanied  by  the  domical 
tombs  (turbeli)  of  their  imperial  founders.  Some  of  these  are  of 
noble  size  and  great  beauty  of  proportion  and  decoration.  The 
Tomb  of  Roxelana  (Khourrem),  the  favorite  wife  of  Soliman 
the  Magnificent  (1553),  is  the  most  beautiful  of  all,  and  perhaps 
the  most  perfect  gem  of  Turkish  architecture,  with  its  elegant 


FIG.    89.—   EXTERIOR    AHMEDIYKH    MOSQUE. 

arcade  surrounding  the  octagonal  mausoleum-chamber.  The 
monumental  fountains  of  Constantinople  also  deserve  men- 
tion. Of  these,  the  one  erected  by  Ahmet  III.  (1710),  near  Hagia 
Sophia,  is  the  most  beautiful.  They  usually  consist  of  a  rec- 
tangular marble  reservoir  with  pagoda-like  roof  and  broad  eaves, 
the  four  faces  of  the  fountain  adorned  each  with  a  niche  and 
basin,  and  covered  with  relief  carving  and  gilded  inscriptions. 


SASSANIAN   AND   MOHAMMEDAN    ARCHITECTURE.       153 


PALACES.  In  this  department  the  Turks  have  done  little 
of  importance.  The  buildings  in  the  Seraglio  gardens  are  low 
and  insignificant.  The 
Tchinli  Kiosque,  now 
the  Imperial  Museum, 
is  however,  a  simple 
but  graceful  two- 
storied  edifice,  consist- 
ing of  four  vaulted 
chambers  in  the  angles 
of  a  fine  cruciform 
hall,  with  domes 
treated  like  those  of 
Bijapur  on  a  small 
scale;  the  tiling  and 
the  veranda  in  front 
are  particularly  ele- 
gant; the  design  sug- 
gests Persian  handi- 
work. The  later 
palaces,  designed  by 
Armenians,  are  pictur- 
esque white  marble 

and  stucco  buildings  on  the  water's  edge;  they  possess  richly 
decorated  halls,  but  the  details  are  of  a  debased  European 
rococo  style,  quite  unworthy  of  an  Oriental  monarch. 

MONUMENTS.  ARABIAN:  "Mosque  of  Omar,"  or  Dome  of  the 
Rock,  638;  El  Aksah,  by  'Abd-el-Melek,  691,  both  at  Jerusalem; 
Mosque  of  'Amrou  at  Cairo,  642;  mosques  at  Kairouan,  665;  great 
mosque  of  El  Walid,  Damascus,  705-717.  Bagdad  built,  755.  Great 
mosque  at  Kairouan,  737.  At  Cairo,  Ibu  Touloun,  876;  Gama-El- 
A/har,  971;  "Tombs  of  Khalifs"  (Karafah),  1250-1400;  Moristau 
Kalaotin,  1284;  Medresseb  Sultan  Hassan,  1350;  Burkouk,  1382; 
El  Azhar  enlarged;  El  Miiayyad,  1415;  Kait  Hoy,  1463;  Sinan 
Pacha  at  Boulak,  1568;  El  Bordeiny,  1638;  "Tombs  of  Mamelukes," 


FIR.   90. — INTERIOR   OF  SULEIMANIYEH, 
CONSTANTINOPLE. 


154  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

i6th  century.  Also  palaces,  baths,  fountains,  mosques,  and  tombs. 
MORESQUE:  Mosques  at  Tunis,  Fez,  Algiers,  Tlemcen;  mosque  at 
Saragossa,  713;  mosque  and  arsenal  at  Tunis,  742;  great  mosque  at 
Cordova,  786,  876,  975 ;  sanctuary,  i-jth  century.  Mosques,  baths, 
etc.,  at  Cordova,  Tarragona,  Segovia,  Toledo,  960-980;  mosque  of 
Sobeiha  at  Cordova,  981.  Palaces  and  mosques  at  Fez;  great 
mosque  at  Seville,  1172.  Extensive  building  in  Morocco  close  of 
12th  century.  Giralda  at  Seville,  1160;  Alcazars  in  Malaga  and 
Seville,  1225-1300;  Alhambra  and  Generalife  at  Granada,  1248, 
1279,  1306;  also  mosques,  baths,  etc.  Yussuf  builds  palace  at 
Malaga,  1348;  palaces  at  Granada.  PERSIAN:  Tombs  near  Bagdad, 
786  (?);  mosque  at  Tabriz,  1300;  tomb  of  Khodabendeh  at  Sul- 
taniyeh,  1313;  Meidan  Shah  (square)  and  Mesjid  Shah  (mosque) 
at  Ispahan,  I7th  century;  Medresseh  (school)  of  Sultan  Hussein, 
i8th  century;  palaces  of  Chehil  Soutoun  (forty  columns)  and 
Aineh  Khaneh  (Palace  of  Mirrors).  Baths,  tombs,  bazaars,  etc., 
at  Cashan,  Koum,  Kasmin,  etc.  Aminabad  Caravanserai  between 
Shiraz  and  Ispahan ;  bazaar  at  Ispahan.  Mosques  and  tombs  at 
Bokhara  and  Samarkhand,  Mosul,  Ardebil,  etc. 

INDIAN:  Mosque  and  "  Kutub  Minar"  (tower)  dr.  1200;  Tomb 
of  Altumsh,  1236;  mosque  at  Ajmir,  1211-1236;  tomb  at  Old 
Delhi;  Adina  Mosque,  Maldah,  1358.  Mosques  Jumma  Musjid  and 
Lai  Durwaza  at  Jaunpore,  first  half  of  I5th  century.  Mosque  and 
bazaar,  Kalburgah,  1435  (?).  Mosques  at  Ahmcdabad  and  Sir- 
kedj,  middle  iSth  century.  Mosque  Jumma  Musjid  and  Tomb  of 
Mahmud,  Bijapur,  dr.  1550.  Tomb  of  Humayun,  Delhi ;  of  Mo- 
hammed Ghaus,  Gwalior ;  mosque  at  Futtehpore  Sikhri ;  palace  at 
Allahabad;  tomb  of  Akbar  at  Secundra,  all  by  Akbar,  1556-1605. 
Palace  and  Jumma  Musjid  at  Delhi;  Muti  Musjid  (Pearl  mosque) 
and  Taj  Mahal  at  Agra,  by  Shah  Jehan,  1628-1658. 

TURKISH:  Scljuk  ruins  at  Konieh  and  Sivas.  Tomb  of  Osman, 
Brusa,  1326;  Green  Mosque  (Yeshil  Djami)  Brusa,  dr.  1350. 
Mosque  at  Isnik  (Nica?a),  1376.  Mehmediyeh  (mosque  Mehmet 
II.)  Constantinople,  1453;  mosque  at  Eyoub ;  Tchinli  Kiosque,  by 
Mehmet  II.,  1450-60;  mosque  Bayazid,  1500;  Selim  I.,  1520; 
Mosque  of  Selim  at  Adrianoplc ;  Suleimaniyeh,  by  Sinan,  1553; 
Ahmediyeh,  by  Ahmet  I.,  1608;  Yeni  Djami,  1665;  Nouri  Osman, 
by  Osman  III.,  1755;  mosque  .Mohammed  .Mi  in  Cairn,  1824.  Khans, 
cloistered  courts  for  public  business  and  commercial  lodgers,  various 
dates,  inth  and  i/th  centuries  (  Valide  Khan,  Vizir  Khan),  vaulted 
bazaars,  fountains,  Seraskierat  Tower,  all  at  Constantinople. 


CHAPTER   XIII. 
EARLY    MEDIEVAL   ARCHITECTURE. 

IN    ITALY   AND  FRANCE. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED:  As  for  Chapter  X,  Corroyer,  Cum- 
mings,  Dehio.  Also,  Boito,  Architettura  del  media  evo  in  Italia. 
Cattaneo,  U 'Architecture  en  Italic.  Chapuy,  Le  moyen  age  mo- 
numental. De  Dartein,  Etudes  sur  I' architecture  lombarde.  En- 
lart,  Manuel  d'archeologie  franfaise.  Hiibsch,  Monuments  de 
rarchitecture  chretienne.  Knight,  Churches  0}  Northern  Italy. 
Lenoir,  Architecture  monastique.  Mothes,  Baukunst  des  Mittcl- 
alters  in  Italien.  Osten,  Bauwerke  in  der  Lombardei.  Porter, 
Medueval  Architecture.  Quicherat,  Melanges  d'histoire  el  d'archc- 
ologie.  Reber,  History  of  Mediceval  Architecture.  Revoil,  Archi- 
tecture romane  du  midi  de  la  France,  Rohault  de  Fleury,  Mo- 
numents de  Pise.  Sharpe,  Churches  of  Charente.  De  Verneilh, 
L1  Architecture  byzantine  en  France.  Viollet-le-Duc,  Dictionnairc 
raisonne  de  rarchitecture  }ranc,aise  (especially  in  Vol.  I.,  Archi- 
tecture religieuse) ;  Discourses  on  Architecture. 

EARLY  MEDLEY AL  EUROPE.  The  partition  of  the  Roman 
Empire  in  the  West  in  the  fifth  century  A.D.,  and  the  ruin  of 
its  capital  under  successive  assaults  (Alaric  410,  Attila,  Genseric, 
Odoacer  476)  marked  the  beginning  of  a  new  era  in  Western 
architecture.  The  so-called  Dark  Ages  which  followed  these 
events  constituted  the  formative  period  of  the  new  Western 
civilization,  during  which  the  Celtic  and  Germanic  races  were 
being  Christianized  and  subjected  to  the  authority  and  to  the 
educative  influences  of  the  Church.  Under  these  conditions  a 
new  architecture  was  developed,  founded  upon  the  traditions 
of  the  early  Christian  builders,  modified  in  different  regions 


I  56  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

by  Roman  or  Byzantine  influences.  For  Rome,  even  ruined, 
never  wholly  lost  her  antique  prestige,  and  Roman  monuments 
covering  the  soil  of  Southern  Europe  were  a  constant  object 
lesson  to  the  builders  of  that  time.  To  this  new  architecture  of 
the  West,  which  in  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries  first  began 
to  achieve  worthy  and  monumental  results,  the  generic  name  of 
Romanesque  has  been  commonly  given,  in  spite  of  the  great 
diversity  of  its  manifestations  in  different  countries. 

CHARACTER  OF  THE  ARCHITECTURE.  Romanesque  archi- 
tecture was  pre-eminently  ecclesiastical.  Civilization  and  culture 
emanated  from  the  Church,  and  her  requirements  and  discipline 
gave  form  to  the  builder's  art.  But  the  basilican  style,  which 
had  so  well  served  her  purposes  in  the  earlier  centuries  and  on 
classic  soil,  was  ill-suited  to  the  new  conditions.  Corinthian  col- 
umns, marble  incrustations,  and  splendid  mosaics  were  not  to  be 
had  for  the  asking  in  the  forests  of  Gaul  or  Germany,  nor  could  the 
Lombards  and  Ostrogoths  in  Italy  or  their  descendants  reproduce 
them.  The  basilican  style  was  complete  in  itself,  possessing  no 
seeds  of  further  growth.  The  priests  and  monks  of  Italy  and 
Western  Europe  sought  to  rear  with  unskilled  labor  churches  of 
stone  in  which  the  general  dispositions  of  the  basilica  should  ap- 
pear in  simpler,  more  massive  dress,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  in  a 
fireproof  construction  with  vaults  of  stone.  This  problem  under- 
lies all  the  varied  phases  of  Romanesque  architecture;  its  final 
solution  was  not,  however,  reached  until  the  Gothic  period,  to 
which  the  Romanesque  forms  the  transition  and  stepping-stone. 

MEDLEVAL  ITALY.  Italy  in  the  early  Middle  Ages  stood  mid- 
way between  the  civilization  of  the  Eastern  Empire  and  the  semi- 
barbarism  of  the  West.  Rome,  Ravenna,  and  Venice  early  be- 
came centres  of  culture  and  maintained  continuous  commercial 
relations  with  the  East.  Architecture  did  not  lack  either  the  in- 
spiration or  the  means  for  advancing  on  new  lines.  But  its  ad- 
vance was  by  no  means  the  same  everywhere.  The  unifying  in- 
fluence of  the  church  was  counterbalanced  by  the  provincialism 


EARLY   MEDLEVAL  ARCHITECTURE. 


157 


and  the  local  diversities  of  the  various  Italian  states,  resulting  in  a 
wide  variety  of  styles.  These,  however,  may  be  broadly  grouped 
in  four  divisions:  the  Lombard,  the  Tuscan-Romanesque, 
the  Italo-Byzantine,  and  the  unchanged  Basilican  or  Early 
Christian,  which  last,  as  was  shown  in  Chapter  X.,  continued  to 
be  practised  in  Rome  throughout  the  Middle  Ages. 

LOMBARD    STYLE.       Owing    to    the    general    rebuilding   of 
ancient  churches  under  the  more  settled  social  conditions  of  the 


TK':.    91. INTERIOR    OP    SAN    AMBROT.IO,    MILAN*. 

eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries,  little  remains  to  us  of  the  archi- 
tecture of  the  three  preceding  centuries  in  Italy,  except  the 
Roman  basilicas  and  a  few  baptisteries  and  circular  churches, 
already  mentioned  in  Chapter  X.  The  so-called  Lombard  mon- 
uments belong  mainly  to  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries, 
though  a  few  churches  and  many  fragmentary  portions  of  others 
belong  to  earlier  dates.  They  are  found  not  only  in  Loinbardy, 
but  also  in  Yenetia  and  the  /Emilia.  Milan,  Pavia,  Piaccn/a, 
Bologna,  and  Yerona  were  important  centres  of  development  of 
this  style.  The  churches  were  frequently  vaulted,  but  the  plans 


158 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


were  basilican,  with  such  variations  as  resulted  from  efforts  to 
meet  the  exigencies  of  vaulted  construction.  The  nave  was  nar- 
rowed, and  instead  of  rows  of  columns  carrying  a  thin  clearstory 
wall,  a  few  massive  piers  of  masonry,  connected  by  broad  pier- 
arches,  supported  the  heavy  ribs  of  the  groined  vaulting,  as  in  S. 
Ambrogio,  Milan  (Fig.  91),  which,  in  spite  of  the  rebuilding  of  its 
vaults  in  1507  (but  on  the  original  design),  is  now  regarded  as  the 
earliest  complete  example  of  the  style, 
and  in  San  Michele,  Pavia  (Fig.  92).  To 
resist  the  thrust  of  the  main  vault,  the 
clearstory  was  sometimes  suppressed,  the 
side-aisle  carried  up  in  two  stories  form- 
ing galleries,  and  rows  of  chapels  added 
at  the  sides,  their  partitions  forming 
buttresses.  The  piers  were  often  of 
clustered  section,  the  better  to  receive 
the  various  arches  and  ribs  they  sup- 
ported. This  reveals  the  introduction  of 
a  new  principle  as  well  as  of  a  new  form 
into  architectural  design:  the  substitu- 
tion of  scientific  logic  for  tradition  in 

the  adaptation  of  each  structural  member  to  its  particular  func- 
tion. This  principle  is  only  dimly  perceived  in  Byzantine  and 
basilican  architecture;  in  these  Lombard  piers  and  vaults  it  is 
frankly  and  vigorously  applied.  It  is  the  germinant  principle  of 
all  Gothic  design.  The  vaulting  was  in  square  divisions  or 
vaulting-bays,  each  embracing  two  pier-arches  which  met  upon 
an  intermediate  pier  lighter  than  the  others.  Thus  the  whole 
aspect  of  the  interior  was  revolutionized.  The  spaciousness  and 
decorative  elegance  of  the  basilicas  were  here  exchanged  for  a 
severe  and  massive  dignity;  their  lightness  of  construction  on  a 
simple  system  incapable  of  further  development,  for  a  heavy 
vaulted  system  destined  to  a  scientific  evolution  extending  through 
centuries  of  progress.  The  choir  was  sometimes  raised  a  few 


>).    92.  — PLAN    OF    SAN 
MICHELE,    PAVIA. 


EARLY    MEDIAEVAL  ARCHITECTURE. 


159 


feet  above  the  nave,  to  allow  of  a  crypt  and  conjessio  beneath, 
reached  by  broad  flights  of  steps  from  the 
nave.  Sta.  Maria  della  Pieve  at  Arezzo  (ninth- 
eleventh  century),  S.  Ambrogio  at  Milan 
(tenth-eleventh  centuries),  S.  Michele  at  Pa- 
via  (late  eleventh  century),  the  Cathedral  of 
Piacenza  (1122),  and  S.  Zeno  at  Verona 
(1139)  are  notable  monuments  of  this  style. 

LOMBARD  EXTERIORS.  The  simple  ex- 
teriors of  the  Lombard  churches  were  usually 
effective  and  well  composed.  Slender  colon- 
nettes  or  long  pilasters,  blind  arcades,  and 
open  arcaded  galleries 
under  the  eaves  gave 
light  and  shade  to 
these  exteriors.  The 
facades  were  mere 
frontispieces  with  usu- 
ally a  single  broad 
gable,  the  three  aisles 
of  the  church  being 
merely  suggested  by 
flat  or  round  pilasters 
dividing  the  front 
(Fig.  93).  Gabled 
porches,  with  columns 
resting  on  the  backs 
of  lions  or  monsters, 
adorned  the  door- 
ways. The  carving 

JM(i      93.--WEST    FRONT    AVI)    CAMPANILE    OF    CATHE-  ,  /• 

URAL,    IMACEN/.A.  WaS    °flen     °f      a      'ieITe 

and  grotesque  char- 
acter. Detached  bell-towers  or  I'aitipanilcs  ad  joined  many  of 
these  churches;  square  and  simple  in  mass,  but  with  well-dis- 


i6o 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


tributed    openings    and    well-proportioned    belfries    (Piacenza, 
Fig.  93  ;    S.  Zeno  at  Verona,  etc.). 

THE  TUSCAN  ROMANESQUE.  The  churches  of  this  style 
(sometimes  called  the  Pisan)  were  less  vigorous  but  more  elegant 
in  design  than  the  Lombard.  They  were  basilicas  in  plan,  with 
timber  ceilings  and  high  clearstories  on  columnar  arcades.  In 


FIT,.    94 BAPTISTKRY,    CAT!! 


TOV.'ER,    PISA. 


their  external  decoration  they  betray  the  influence  of  Byzantine 
traditions,  especially  in  the  use  of  white  and  colored  marble  in 
alternating  bands  or  in  panelled  veneering.  Still  more  striking 
are  the  external  wall-arcades  sometimes  occupying  the  whole 
height  of  the  wall  and  carried  on  flat  pilasters,  sometimes  in  super- 
posed stages  of  small  arches  on  slender  columns  standing  free  of 
the  wall.  In  general  the  decorative  element  prevailed  over  the 
constructive  in  the  design  of  these  picturesquely  beautiful  churches. 


EARLY    MEDIEVAL   ARCHITECTURE. 


161 


some  of  which  arc  of  noble  size.  The  Duomo  (cathedral)  of 
Pisa,  built  1063-1118,  is  the  finest  monument  of  the  style  (Figs. 
94,  95).  It  is  312  feet  long  and  118  wide,  with  long  transepts 
and  an  elliptical  dome  of  later  date  over  the  crossing  (the  inter- 
section of  nave  and  transepts).  Its  richly  arcaded  front  and 
banded  flanks  strikingly  exemplify  the  illogical  and  unconstruc- 
tive  but  highly  decorative  methods  of  the  Tuscan  Romanesque 


PIC.    95. —  INTKRIOR    OP    PISA    CATHEDRAL. 

builders.  The  circular  Baptistery  (1153),  with  its  lofty  dom- 
ical central  hall  surrounded  by  an  aisle  in  two  stories,  and  the 
famous  Leaning  Tower  (1174),  both  designed  with  external 
arcading,  combine  with  the  Duomo  to  form  the  most  remark- 
able group  of  ecclesiastical  buildings  in  Italy,  if  not  in  Europe 
(Fig.  94)- 

The  same  style  appears  in  more  flamboyant  shape  in  some  of 
the  churches  of  Lucca.  The  cathedral  S.  Martino  (1060;  fa- 
cade, 1204;  nave  altered  in  fourteenth  century)  is  the  finest  and 
largest  of  these;  S.  Michele  (facade,  uSS)  and  S.  Frediano 


l62  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

(twelfth  century)  have  the  most  elaborately  decorated  facades. 
The  same  principles  of  design  appear  in  the  cathedral  and  several 
other  churches  in  Pistoia  and  Prato;  but  these  belong,  for  the 
most  part,  to  the  Gothic  period. 

FLORENCE.  The  church  of  S.  Miniato,  near  Florence 
(1013-60),  shows  a  modification  of  the  Pisan  style.  It  is  in  plan 
a  basilica  with  the  nave  divided  into  three  parts  by  two  transverse 
arches,  carrying  a  richly  painted  timber  roof,  resembling  that  of 
Messina  Cathedral.*  The  interior  is  embellished  with  encrusted 
patterns  in  black  and  white  marble.  The  exterior  is  adorned 
with  wall-arches  and  with  panelled  veneering  in  white  and  dark 
marble,  instead  of  the  horizontal  bands  of  the  Pisan  churches,  a 
blending  of  Pisan  and  Italo-Byzantine  methods.  The  Baptist- 
ery of  Florence,  originally  the  cathedral,  an  imposing  polygonal 
domical  edifice  of  the  tenth  century,  presents  externally  one  of 
the  most  admirable  examples  of  this  practice.  Its  marble  veneer- 
ing in  black  and  white,  with  pilasters  and  arches  of  excellent 
design,  attributed  by  Vasari  to  Arnolfo  di  Cambio,  is  by  many 
considered  to  be  much  older,  although  restored  by  that  archi- 
tect in  1294. 

Suggestions  of  the  Pisan  arcade  system  are  found  in  widely 
scattered  examples  in  the  east  and  south  of  Italy,  mingled  with 
features  of  Lombard  and  Byzantine  design.  In  Apulia,  as  at 
Bari,  Caserta  Vecchia  (noo),  Molfetta  (1192),  and  in  Sicily,  the 
Byzantine  influence  is  conspicuous  in  the  use  of  domes  and  in 
many  of  the  decorative  details.  Particularly  is  this  the  case  at 
Palermo  and  Monreale,  where  the  churches  erected  after  the 
Norman  conquest — some  of  them  domical,  some  basilican — show 
a  strange  but  picturesque  and  beautiful  mixture  of  Romanesque, 
Byzantine,  and  Arabic  forms.  The  Cathedrals  of  Monreale 
and  Palermo  (1185)  and  the  churches  of  the  Eremiti  and  La 
Martorana  at  Palermo  are  the  most  important.  The  beautiful 
cloisters  of  the  two  cathedrals  should  be  mentioned  ;  also  the 
*  Destroyed  by  the  earthquake  of  December  J<S,  HjoH. 


EARLY    MEDIAEVAL   ARCHITECTURE.  163 

shameful  disfigurement  of  the  interior  of  Palermo  Cathedral  by 
Fuga  in  the  eighteenth  century. 

The  Italo-Byzantine  style  has  already  been  treated  in  the 
latter  part  of  Chapter  XI. 

CAMPANILES.  The  medieval  bell-towers  of  Italy  are 
among  the  most  striking  features  of  the  architecture  of  their 
period.  They  were  invariably  isolated  structures,  usually 
square  in  plan  and  without  spires.  The  earliest  appear  to  be 
those  adjoining  the  two  churches  of  San  Apollinare  in  and  near 
Ravenna  (see  p.  115),  and  date  presumably  from  the  sixth  cen- 
tury. They  are  plain  circular  towers  with  few  and  small  open- 
ings, except  in  the  uppermost  story,  where  larger  arched  openings 
permit  the  issue  of  the  sound  of  the  bells.  It  was  at  Rome,  and 
not  till  the  ninth  or  tenth  century,  that  the  campanile  became  a 
recognized  feature  of  church  architecture.  The  Roman  cam- 
panile was  built  of  brick  upon  a  square  plan,  rising  with  little  or 
no  architectural  adornment  to  a  height  usually  of  a  hundred  feet 
or  more,  and  furnished  with  but  a  few  small  openings  below  the 
belfry  stage,  where  a  pair  of  coupled  arched  windows  separated 
by  a  simple  column  opened  from  each  face  of  the  tower.  Above 
these  windows  a  low  pyramidal  roof  terminated  the  tower.  The 
towers  of  Sta.  Maria  in  Cosmedin,  Sta.  Maria  in  Trastevere,  and 
S.  Giorgio  in  Velabro  are  examples  of  this  type.  Most  of  the 
Roman  examples  date  from  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries. 

In  other  cities,  the  campanile  was  treated  with  some  variety  of 
form  and  decoration,  as  well  as  of  material.  In  Lombardy  and 
Venetia  the  square  red-brick  shaft  of  the  tower  is  often  adorned 
with  long,  narrow  pilaster  strips  and  an  arcaded  cornice,  as  at 
Piacenza  (p.  159,  Fig.  93)  and  Venice.  The  openings  at  the  top 
may  be  three  or  four  in  number  on  each  face,  and  the  plan  is 
sometimes  octagonal.  The  brick  octagonal  campanile  of  S. 
Gottardo  at  Milan  is  one  of  the  finest  Lombard  church  towers. 
At  Verona  the  brick  tower  on  the  Piazza  dell'  Frbe  and  that  of  S. 
Zeno  are  conspicuous  and  at  Pomposa,  Torcello,  Milan  (S.  Am- 


164  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

brogio,  S.  Satiro),  Padua,  Modena,  and  Como  are  other  interest- 
ing examples;  but  every  important  town  of  northern  Italy  pos- 
sesses one  or  more  examples  of  these  structures  dating  from  the 
eleventh,  twelfth,  or  thirteenth  century. 

Undoubtedly  the  three  most  noted  bell-towers  in  Italy  are  those 
of  Venice,  Pisa,  and  Florence.  The  great  Campanile  of  St. 
Mark  at  Venice,  first  begun  in  874,  carried  higher  in  the  twelfth 
and  fourteenth  centuries,  and  finally  completed  in  the  sixteenth 
century  with  the  marble  belvedere  and  wooden  spire  so  familiar 
in  pictures  of  Venice,  was  formerly  the  highest  in  Italy,  measuring 
approximately  325  feet  to  the  summit.  This  superb  historic 
monument  which  fell  in  sudden  ruin  in  1902  is  now  being  slowly 
rebuilt  on  the  original  design.  The  Leaning  Tower  of  Pisa  (see 
p.  1 60,  Fig.  94)  dates  from  1174,  and  is  unique  in  its  plan  and  its 
exterior  treatment  with  superposed  arcades.  Begun  apparently 
as  a  leaning  tower,  it  seems  to  have  increased  this  lean  toadanger- 
ous  point,  by  the  settling  of  its  foundations  during  construction, 
as  its  upper  stages  were  made  to  deviate  slightly  towards  the  ver- 
tical from  the  inclination  of  the  lower  portion.  It  has  always 
served  rather  as  a  watch-tower  and  belvedere  than  as  a  bell-tower. 
The  Campanile  adjoining  the  Duomo  at  Florence  and  other 
notable  towers  of  the  Gothic  period  are  described  in  Chapter 
XIX. 

WESTERN  ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE.  In  Western  Eu- 
rope the  unrest  and  lawlessness  which  attended  the  unsettled 
relations  of  society  under  the  feudal  system  long  retarded  the 
establishment  of  that  social  order  without  which  architectural 
progress  is  impossible.  With  the  eleventh  century  there  began, 
however,  a  great  activity  in  building,  principally  among  the  mon- 
asteries, which  represented  all  that  there  was  of  culture  and  sta- 
bility amid  the  prevailing  disorder.  Undisturbed  by  war,  the 
only  abodes  of  peaceful  labor,  learning,  and  piety,  they  had  become 
rich  and  powerful,  both  in  men  and  land.  Probably  the  more  or 
less  general  apprehension  of  the  supposed  impending  end  of  the 


EARLY   MEDIAEVAL  ARCHITECTURE.  165 

world  in  the  year  1000  contributed  to  this  result  by  driving  un- 
quiet consciences  to  seek  refuge  in  the  monasteries,  or  to  endov 
them  richly. 

The  monastic  builders,  with  little  technical  training,  but  with 
plenty  of  willing  hands,  sought  out  new  architectural  paths  to  meet 
their  special  needs.  Remote  from  classic  and  Byzantine  models, 
and  mainly  dependent  on  their  own  resources,  they  often  failed  to 
realize  the  intended  results.  But  skill  came  with  experience,  and 
with  advancing  civilization  and  a  surer  mastery  of  construction 
came  a  finer  taste  and  greater  elegance  of  design.  Meanwhile 
military  architecture  developed  a  new  science  of  building,  and 
covered  Europe  with  imposing  castles,  admirably  constructed 
and  often  artistic  in  design  as  far  as  military  exigencies  would 
permit. 

CHARACTER  OF  THE  STYLE.  The  Romanesque  architec- 
ture of  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  in  Western  Europe 
(sometimes called  the  Round-Arched  Gothic)  was  thus  predomi- 
nantly though  not  exclusively  monastic.  This  gave  it  a  certain 
unity  of  character  in  spite  of  national  and  local  variations.  The 
problem  which  the  wealthy  orders  set  themselves  was,  like  that 
of  the  Lombard  church-builders  in  Italy,  to  adapt  the  basilica 
plan  to  the  exigencies  of  vaulted  construction.  Massive  walls, 
round  arches  stepped  or  recessed  to  lighten  their  appearance, 
heavy  mouldings  richly  carved,  clustered  piers  and  jamb-shafts, 
capitals  either  of  the  cushion  type  or  imitated  from  the  Corin- 
thian, and  strong  and  effective  carving  in  which  the  influence  of 
Byzantine  ivories  and  MSS.  illuminations  is  clearly  discernible — 
all  these  are  features  alike  of  French,  German,  English,  and  Span- 
ish Romanesque  architecture. 

THE  FRENCH  ROMANESQUE.  Though  monasticism  pro- 
duced remarkable  results  in  France,  architecture  there  did  not 
wholly  depend  upon  the  monasteries.  Southern  Gaul  (Prov- 
ence) was  full  of  classic  remains  and  classic  traditions,  while  at  the 
same  time  it  maintained  close  trade  relations  with  Venice  and  the 


i66 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


East.*  The  domical  cathedral  of  Cahors  (1050-1100),  an  ob- 
vious imitation  of  S.  Irene  at  Constantinople,  and  the  later  Cathe- 
dral of  Angouleme  (1119)  display  a  notable  advance  in  archi- 
tectural skill  outside  of  the  monasteries.  The  church  of  St. 
Front  at  Perigueux,  built  in  1120,  reproduced  the  plan  of  St. 
Mark's  without  its  rich  decoration,  and  with  pointed  instead  of 
round  arches  (Figs.  96,  97).  Among  the  abbeys,  Fontevrault 
(1101-1119)  closely  resembles  Angouleme,  but  surpasses  it  in  the 

elegance  of  its  choir  and  chapels. 
In  these  and  a  number  of  other 
domical  churches  of  the  same 
Franco-Byzantine  type  in  Aqui- 

1m    i  i|i-   -ij — --.-•  tania,  the  substitution  of  the  Latin 

cross  in  the  plan  for  the  Greek 
"  ^B'i' —  B^3  cross  used  in  St.  Front,  evinces  the 

Gallic  tendency  to  work  out  to 
their  logical  end  new  ideas  or  new 
applications  of  old  ones.  These 
striking  variations  on  Byzantine 
themes  might  have  developed  into 
an  independent  local  style  but 
for  the  overwhelming  tide  of 
Gothic  influence  which  later 
poured  in  from  the  North. 
Meanwhile,  farther  south  (at  Aries,  Avignon,  etc.),  classic 
models  strongly  influenced  the  details,  if  not  the  plans,  of  an  in- 
teresting series  of  churches  remarkable  especially  for  their  porches 
rich  with  figure  sculpture  and  for  their  elaborately  carved  details. 
The  classic  archivolt,  the  Corinthian  capital,  the  Roman  forms 
of  enriched  mouldings,  are  evident  at  a  glance  in  the  porches  of 
Notre  Dame  des  Doms  at  Avignon,  of  the  church  of  St.  Gilles 

*  See  Viollct-le-Duc,  Dictionnairc  raisonnc,  article  ARCHITECT- 
URE, vol.  i.,  pp.  66  ct  scq.;  also  Enlart,  Manuel  d'archco  logic  fran- 
<;aisc,  i.,  pp.  210-212,  284-286. 


FIG.    96. PLAN    OF    ST.    FRONT. 


EARLY   MEDIAEVAL  ARCHITECTURE. 


67 


and  of  St.  Trophime  at 

Aries. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF 

VAULTING.      It    was    in 

Central  France,  and 

mainly  along  the  Loire, 

that  the  systematic  devel- 
opment of  vaulted  church 

architecture    began. 

Naves  covered  with  bar- 
rel-vaults,   sometimes  of 

pointed  section,      appear 

in   a   number    of    large 

churches     built     during 

the  eleventh  and  twelfth 

centuries,    with     apsidal 

and    transeptal     chapels 

and  aisles  carried  around 

the  apse,  as  in  St.  Etienne, 

Nevers,  Notre  Dame  du  Port  at  Clermont-Ferrand  (Figs.  98, 

99),  St.  Paul  at  Issoire,  and  in  the  imposing  church  of  St. 
Sernin  at  Toulouse,  in  Provence  (Fig.  100). 
The  thrust  of  these  ponderous  vaults  was 
clumsily  resisted  by  half-barrel  vaults  over 
the  side-aisles,  transmitting  the  strain  to 
massive  side-walls  (Fig.  99),  or  by  high 
side-aisles  with  transverse  barrel  or  groined 
vaults  over  each  bay.  In  either  case  the 
clearstory  was  suppressed — a  fact  which 
mattered  little  in  the  sunny  southern  prov- 
inces. In  the  more  cloudy  North,  in  Nor- 
mandy, Picardy,  and  the  Royal  Domain,  the 
PIG.  98.— PLAN  f.p  nave  vault  was  raised  higher  to  admit  of 

NOTHK    DAMP.  111!   I'OKT, 

CLF.RMONT.  clearstory    windows.       But    these    eleventh- 


Fir,.    97. INTERIOR    OP    ST.    PROMT,    PERIGUEUX. 

In  its  original  form. 


1 68 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


century  vaults  nearly  all  fell 
in,  and  had  to  be  recon- 
structed on  new  principles. 
In  this  work  the  Clunisians 
seem  to  have  led  the  way,  as 
at  Cluny  (1089)  and  Veze- 
lay  (noo).  In  the  latter 
church,  one  of  the  finest 
and  most  interesting  French 
edifices  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, a  groined  vault  re- 
placed the  barrel-vault, 
though  the  oblong  plan  of 
the  vaulting-bays,  due  to  the 
nave  being  wider  than  the 


flG    100.— PLAN    OF    ST.    SERNIN, 
TOULOUSE. 


FIG.  99.— SECTION  OP  NOTRE  DAME  DU  PORT, 
CLERMONT. 


pier-arches,  led  to  somewhat  awk- 
ward twisted  surfaces  in  the 
vaulting.  But  even  here  the 
vaults  had  insufficient  lateral 
buttressing,  and  began  to  crack 
and  settle;  so  that  in  the  great 
ante-chapel,  built  thirty  years 
later,  the  side-aisles  were  made 
in  two  stories,  the  better  to  resist 
the  thrust,  and  the  groined 
vaults  themselves  were  con- 
structed of  pointed  section. 
These  seem  to  be  the  earliest 
pointed  groined  vaults  in  France. 
It  was  not  till  the  second  half  of 
that  century,  however,  that  the 
flying  buttress  was  combined 
with  such  vaults,  so  as  to  permit 
of  high  clearstories  for  the  better 
lighting  of  the  nave;  and  the 


EARLY    MEDIEVAL  ARCHITECTURE. 


169 


problem  of  satisfactorily  vaulting  an  oblong  space  with  a  groined 
vault  was  not  solved  until  the  following  century.* 

ONE-AISLED  CHURCHES.  In  the  Franco-Byzantine  churches 
already  described  (p.  166)  this  difficulty  of  the  oblong  vaulting- 
bay  did  not  occur,  owing  to  the  absence  of  side-aisles  and  pier- 
arches.  Following  this  conception  of  church-planning,  a  number 
of  interesting  parish  churches  and  a  few  cathedrals  were  built 
in  various  parts  of  France  in  which  side-recesses  or  chapels 
took  the  place  of  side- 
aisles.  The  partitions 
separating  them  served 
as  abutments  for  the 
groined  or  barrel-vaults 
of  the  nave.  The  cathe- 
drals of  Autun  (1150) 
and  Langres  (1160),  and 
in  the  fourteenth  century 
that  of  Alby,  employed 
this  arrangement,  com- 
mon in  many  earlier  Pro- 
vencal churches  which 
have  disappeared. 

SIX-PART  VAULTING. 
In  the  Royal  Domain 
great  architectural  activ- 
ity does  not  appear  to  have  begun  until  the  beginning  of  the 
Gothic  period  in  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century.  But  in 
Normandy,  and  especially  at  Caen  and  Mont  St.  Michel,  there 
were  produced,  between  1046  and  1120,  some  remarkable 
churches,  in  which  a  high  clearstory  was  secured  in  conjunction 
with  a  vaulted  nave,  by  the  use  of  "six-part"  vaulting  (Fig.  101). 
This  was  an  awkward  expedient,  by  which  a  square  vaulting-bay 
was  divided  into  six  parts  by  the  groins  and  by  a  middle  trans- 
*  Sec  Introduction  to  Chapter  XV. 


FIG.  101. — A  SIX-PART  RIBBED  VAULT,  SHOWING 
TWO  COMPARTMENTS  WITH  THE  FILLINGS 
COMPLETE. 

a,  a,  Transverse  ribs  (doiibleaux);  />,  6,   Wall- 
ribs  (formerets);  c,  c,  Groin-ribs  (tiiagonaux). 
(All  the  ribs  are  semicircles.) 


I7O  HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

verse  rib,  necessitating  t\vo  narrow  skew  vaults  meeting  at  the 
centre.  Two  of  these  relatively  narrow  side-aisle  bays  were  thus 
grouped  under  one  vaulting-bay,  avoiding  the  oblong  vault-bay 
occurring  at  Vezelay.  This  unsatisfactory  device  was  retained  for 
over  a  century,  occuring  frequently  in  early  Gothic  churches  in 
France,  and  occasionally  in  Great  Britain.  It  made  it  possible  to 
resist  the  thrust  by  high  side-aisles,  and  yet  to  open  windows  above 
these  under  the  cross-vaults.  The  abbey  churches  of  St.  Etienne 
(the  Abbaye  aux  Hommes)  and  Ste.  Trinite  (Abbaye  aux 
Dames),  at  Caen,  built  in  the  time  of  William  the  Conqueror, 
were  among  the  most  magnificent  churches  of  their  time,  both 
in  size  and  in  the  excellence  and  ingenuity  of  their  construction. 
The  great  abbey  church  of  Mont  St.  Michel  (much  altered  in 
later  times)  should  also  be  mentioned  here.  At  the  same  time 
these  and  other  Norman  churches  showed  a  great  advance  in 
their  internal  composition.  A  well-developed  triforium  or  sub- 
ordinate gallery  was  introduced  between  the  pier-arches  and 
clearstory,  and  all  the  structural  membering  of  the  edifice  was 
better  proportioned  and  more  logically  expressed  than  in  most 
contemporary  work. 

ARCHITECTURAL  DETAILS.  The  details  of  French  Roman- 
esque architecture  varied  considerably  in  the  several  provinces, 
according  as  classic,  Byzantine,  or  local  influences  prevailed.  Fx- 
cept  in  a  few  of  the  Aquitanian  churches,  the  round  arch  was  uni- 
versal. The  walls  were  heavy  and  built  of  rubble  between  fac- 
ings of  stones  of  moderate  si/e  dressed  with  the  axe.  Windows 
and  doors  were  widely  splayed  to  diminish  the  obstruction  of  the 
massive  walls,  and  were  treated  with  jamb-shafts  and  recessed 
arches.  These  were  usually  formed  with  large  cylindrical 
mouldings,  richly  carved  with  leaf  ornaments,  /ig/ags,  billets, 
and  grotesques.  Figure-sculpture  was  more  generally  used  in 
the  South  than  in  the  Xortli.  The  interior  piers  were  sometimes 
cylindrical,  but  more  often  clustered,  and  where  square  bays  of 
four-part  or  six-part  vaulting  were  employed,  the  piers  were  alter- 


EARLY   MEDIAEVAL  ARCHITECTURE.  171 

nately  lighter  and  heavier.  Each  shaft  nacl  its  independent  capi- 
tal either  of  the  block  type  or  of  a  form  resembling  somewhat  that 
of  the  Corinthian  order.  During  the  eleventh  century  it  became 
customary  to  carry  up  to  the  main  vaulting  one  or  more  shafts  of 
the  compound  pier  to  support  the  vaulting  ribs.  Thus  the  di- 
vision of  the  nave  into  bays  was  accentuated,  while  at  the  same 
time  the  horizontal  three-fold  division  of  the  height  by  a  well- 
defined  triforium  between  the  pier-arches  and  clearstory  began 
to  be  likewise  emphasized. 

VAULTING.  The  vaulting  was  also  divided  into  bays  by  trans- 
verse ribs,  and  where  it  was  groined  the  groins  themselves  began  in 
the  twelfth  century  to  be  marked  by  groin-ribs.*  These  were 
constructed  independently  of  the  vaulting,  and  the  four  or  six  com- 
partments of  each  vaulting-bay  were  then  built  in,  the  ribs  serv- 
ing, in  part  at  least,  to  support  the  centrings  for  this  purpose. 
This  far-reaching  principle,  already  applied  by  the  Romans  in 
their  concrete  vaults  (see  p.  84),  appears  as  a  re-discovery,  or 
rather  an  independent  invention,  of  the  builders  of  Normandy  at 
the  close  of  the  eleventh  century.  The  flying  buttress  was  a  later 
invention;  in  the  round-arched  buildings  of  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  centuries  the  buttressing  was  mainly  internal,  and  was 
incomplete  and  timid  in  its  arrangement. 

EXTERIORS.  The  exteriors  were  on  this  account  plain  and 
flat.  The  windows  were  small,  the  mouldings  simple,  and  towers 
were  rarely  combined  with  the  body  of  the  church  until  after  the 
beginning  of  the  twelfth  century.  Then  they  appeared  as  mere 
belfries  of  moderate  height,  with  pyramidal  roofs  and  effectively 
arranged  openings,  the  germs  of  the  noble  (iothic  spires  of  later 
times.  Externally  the  western  porches  and  portals  were  the  most 
important  features  of  the  design,  producing  an  imposing  effect 
by  their  massive  arches,  clustered  piers,  richly  carved  mould- 
ings, and  dee])  shadows. 

*  As  had  been  earlier  done  in  Lombard  architecture  in  S.  Am- 
brogio,  Milan. 


1/2  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

CLOISTERS,  ETC.  Mention  should  be  made  of  the  other  monas- 
tic buildings  which  were  grouped  around  the  abbey  churches  of 
this  period.  These  comprised  refectories,  chapter-halls,  cloistered 
courts  surrounded  by  the  conventual  cells,  and  a  large  number  of 
accessory  structures  for  kitchens,  infirmaries,  stores,  etc.  The 
whole  formed  an  elaborate  and  complex  aggregation  of  con- 
nected buildings,  often  of  great  size  and  beauty,  especially  the 
refectories  and  cloisters.  Most  of  these  conventual  buildings 
have  disappeared,  many  of  them  having  been  demolished  during 
the  Gothic  period  to  make  way  for  more  elegant  structures  in  the 
new  style.  There  remain,  however,  a  number  of  fine  cloistered 
courts  in  their  original  form,  especially  in  Southern  France. 
Among  the  most  remarkable  of  these  are  those  of  Moissac,  Elne, 
and  Montmajour. 

MONUMENTS.  ITALY.  (For  basilicas  and  domical  churches  of 
6th-i2th  centuries  see  pp.  118,  119.) — Before  nth  century:  Sta. 
Maria  at  Toscanella,  altered  1206;  S.  Donato,  Zara ;  chapel  at  Fri- 
uli ;  baptisteries  at  Biella,  Albenga,  Asti,  Galliano ;  Rotonclo  at 
Brescia;  S.  Michele  in  Monte,  Pola,  997.  nth  century:  S.  Ab- 
bondio,  Como,  1013;  SS.  Pietro  e  Paolo,  Bologna,  1014;  Duomo  at 
Xovara,  1020;  S.  Giovanni,  Viterbo;  Sta.  Maria  della  Pieve,  Arez- 
zo ;  S.  Antonio,  Piacenza,  1014;  S.  Ambrogio,  Milan,  9tb-iitb  cen- 
tury; Duomo  at  Bari,  1027  (much  altered)  ;  Duomo  and  baptistery, 
Novara,  1030;  Duomo  at  Parma,  begun  1058;  Duomo  at  Pisa, 
1063-1118;  S.  Miniato,  Florence,  1063-12111  century;  S.  Michele 
at  Pavia,  loth-nth  century,  vault  rebuilt  i6tb  century;  Duomo 
at  Modena,  late  iitb  century. —  I2th  century:  in  Calabria  and 
Apulia,  cathedrals  of  Traiii,  noo;  Caserta  Veccbia,  1100-1153;  Mol- 
fctta,  1162;  Benevento;  churches  S.  Giovanni  at  Brindisi,  S.  Nic- 
colo  at  Bari,  1139.  In  Sicily,  Kremiti.  1132,  and  La  Martorana, 
1143,  both  at  Palermo;  Duomo  at  Monreale;  Duomo  at  Palermo, 
1174-1189;  Duomo  at  Messina;  Duomo  at  Cefalii,  1131-48.  In 
Northern  Italy,  S.  Tomaso  in  I.imine,  Bergamo,  1 100  (  ?)  ;  Duomo  at 
Cremona,  1107-90;  Parma,  in/;  Sta.  Giulia,  Brescia ;  S.  Lorenzo, 
Milan,  rebuilt  1119;  Duomo  at  Piacenza.  1122;  S.  Zeno  at  Verona, 
1139;  baptistery  at  Pisa,  1153-1278;  Leaning  Tower,  Pisa,  1174; 
S.  Michele,  Lucca,  1188;  S.  Giovanni  and  S.  Frediano,  Lucca.  In 


EARLY   MEDI/EVAL  ARCHITECTURE.  173 

Dalmatia,  cathedral   at  Zara,    1192-1204.     Many  castles   and  early 
town-halls,  as  at  Bari,  Brescia,  Lucca,  etc. 

FRANCE:  Previous  to  nth  century:  Bapt.  St.  Jean,  Poitiers, 
Chapel  St.  Laurent,  Grenoble;  Crypts  at  Jouarre  and  Poitiers,  all 
7th  century;  St.  Germiny-des-Pres,  806;  Chapel  of  the  Trinity,  St. 
Honorat-dcs-Lerins ;  Ste.  Croix  de  Montniajour. — iith  century: 
St.  Germain-des-Pres,  Paris,  1014;  vault,  choir  later;  St.  Philibcrt, 
Tournus,  1009-19;  Conques,  1035;  Cerisy-la-Foret  and  abbey  church 
of  Mont  St.  Michel,  1020  (the  latter  altered  in  I2th  and  i6th  cen- 
turies; Vignory ;  St.  Genoti ;  Jumieges ;  Montierender ;  porch  of 
St.  Benoit-sur-Loire,  1030;  St.  Sepulchre  at  Neuvy,  1045;  Ste.  Trin- 
ite  (Abbaye  aux  Dames)  at  Caen,  1046,  vaulted  1140;  St.  Etienne 
(Abbaye  aux  Hommes)  at  Caen,  same  date;  St.  Etienne,  Nevers, 
1063;  Ste.  Croix  at  Quimperle,  1081 ;  cathedral,  Cahors,  1119;  ab- 
bey churches  of  Cluny  (demolished)  and  Vezelay,  1089-1100;  cir- 
cular church  of  Rieux-Merinville,  church  of  St.  Savin  in  Auvergne, 
the  churches  of  St.  Paul  at  Issoire  and  Notre-Dame-du-Port  at 
Clermont,  St.  Ililaire,  Ste.  Radegonde  and  Notrc-Dame-la-Grande 
at  Poitiers,  all  at  close  of  nth  and  beginning  of  I2th  century. 
Many  crypts  under  later  churches. — I2th  century:  Cath.  Autun, 
1120-32;  domical  churches  of  Aquitania  and  vicinity;  Solignac  and 
Fontevrault,  1120;  St.  Front  at  Perigueux,  1120;  St.  Etienne 
(Perigueux),  St.  Avit-Senieur ;  Angoulemc,  1105-28;  Souillac, 
Broussac,  etc.,  early  I2th  century.  St.  Trophimc  at  Aries,  1 1 10, 
cloisters  later;  St.  Gilles,  1116;  cliurcli  of  Vaison ;  abbeys  and 
cloisters  at  Montmajour,  Tarascon,  Moissac  (with  fragments  of  a 
loth-century  cloister  built  into  present  arcades)  ;  St.  Paul-du-Mau- 
solce ;  Puy-en-Velay,  with  fine  church;  St.  Maurice,  Angers;  La 
Trinite,  Laval;  Paray-le-Monial ;  Notre  Dame  de  la  Coulture; 
Notre  Dame  des  Doms,  Avignon ;  St.  Eutrope,  Saintes ;  St.  Ours, 
Lochcs,  1165;  St.  Saturnin  (Sernin)  at  Toulouse  (original  church, 
1060-96;  rebuilt  I2th  century;  nave  rebuilt  I4th  century  on  old  de- 
sign). Many  other  abbeys,  parish  churches,  and  a  few  cathedrals 
in  Central  and  Northern  France  especially. 


CHAPTER    XIV. 
EARLY    MEDL-EVAL    ARCHITECTURE.— Continued. 

IN    GERMANY,    GREAT    BRITAIN,    AND    SPAIN. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED:  As  before,  Htibsch  and  Reber.  Also 
Bond,  Gothic  Architecture  in  England.  Brandon,  Analysis  0} 
Gothic  Architecture.  Boisscree,  Nieder  Riicin.  Ditchfield,  The 
Cathedrals  of  England.  Forster,  Denkmalcr  dcutscher  Bau- 
kimst.  Hasak,  Die  romanische  und  die  gofische  Baukunst  (in 
Handbuch  d.  Arch.).  Liibke,  Die  Mittcldltcrliche  Kunst  in 
Westfalen.  Mollcr,  Denkmalcr  der  dcutschen  Baukunst.  Otte, 
Geschichte  dcr  romanischen  Baukunst  in  Dcutschland.  Puttrich, 
Baukunst  des  Mittclalters  in  Sachsen.  Rickman,  An  Attempt  to 
Discriminate  the  Styles  of  Architecture.  Ross  and  McGibbon, 
Ecclesiastical  Architecture  of  Scotland.  Scott,  English  Church 
Architecture.  Van  Renssclaer,  English  Cathedrals. 

MEDLEVAL  GERMANY.  Architecture  developed  less  rapidly 
and  symmetrically  in  Germany  than  in  France.  The  unwieldy 
dominion  known  us  the  "Holy  Roman  Empire"  was  ruled  over 
successively  by  the  Saxon,  Franconian  and  Suabian  lines,  but 
without  establishing  real  political  unity  in  its  vast  territory.  Only 
in  the  Rhine  valley  were  the  conditions  early  favorable  to  progress 
in  the  arts.  The  early  churches  were  of  wood,  and  the  substitu- 
tion of  stone  for  wood  proceeded  slowly.  During  the  Carolingian 
epoch  (800-0.10.),  however,  a  few  important  buildings  had  been 
erected,  embodying  By/untine  and  classic  traditions.  Among 
these  the  most  notable  was  the  Minster  or  palatine  chapel  of 
Charlemagne  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  an  obvious  imitation  of  San 
Vilale  at  Ravenna.  It  consisted  of  an  octagonal  domed  hall  sur 


EARLY   MEDI/EVAL  ARCHITECTURE. 


175 


rounded  by  a  vaulted  aisle  in  two  stories,  but  without  the  eight 
niches  of  the  Ravenna  plan.  It  was  preceded  by  a  porch  flanked 
by  turrets.  The  Byzantine  type  thus  introduced  was  repeated  in 
later  churches,  as  in  the  Nuns'  Choir  at  Essen  (947)  and  at  Ott- 
marsheim  (1050).  In  the  great  monastery  at  Eulda  a  basilica 
with  transepts  and  with  an  apsidal  choir  at  either  end  was  built  in 
803.  These  choirs  were  raised  above  the  level  of  the  nave,  to 
admit  of  crypts  beneath  them,  as  in  many  Lombard  churches; 
a  practice  which,  with  the  reduplication  of  the  choir  and  apse  just 
mentioned,  became  very  common  in  German  Romanesque  archi- 
tecture. 

EARLY  CHURCHES.  It  was  in  Saxony  that  this  architecture 
first  entered  upon  a  truly  national  development.  The  early 
churches  of  this  province  and  of  Hildesheim  (where  architecture 
flourished  under  the  favor  of  the  bishops,  as  elsewhere  under  the 
royal  influence)  were  of  basilican  plan  and  destitute  of  vaulting, 
except  in  the  crypts.  They  were  built  with  massive  piers,  some- 
times rectangular,  sometimes  clustered,  the  two  kinds  often  alter- 
nating in  the  same  nave.  Short  columns  were, 
-however,  sometimes  used  instead  of  piers,  either 
alone,  as  at  Paulinzclle  and  Limburg-on-the- 
Hardt  (1024-39),  or  alternating  with  piers,  as 
at  Hecklingen,  Gernrode  (958-1050),  and  St. 
Godehard  at  Hildesheim  (1033).  A  triple  east- 
ern apse,  with  apsidal  chapels  projecting  cast- 
ward  from  the  transepts  were  common  elements 
in  the  plans,  and  a  second  apse,  choir,  and  crypt 
at  the  west  end  were  not  infrequent.  Externally 
the  most  striking  feature  was  the  association  of 
two,  four,  or  even  six  square  or  circular  towers 
with  the  mass  of  the  church,  and  the  elevation 
of  square  or  polygonal  turrets  or  cupolas  over 
the  crossing.  These  gave  a  very  picturesque 
aspect  to  edifices  otherwise  somewhat  wanting  in  artistic  interest. 


.    10.'.         PLAN  OF 
M  1  S.'  S  1  K  K    A  I 
WOK  MS. 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


RHENISH  CHURCHES.  It  was  in  the  Rhine  provinces  that 
vaulting  was  first  applied  to  the  naves  of  German  churches,  nearly 
a  half  century  after  its  general  adoption  in  France.  Cologne  pos- 
sesses an  interesting  trio  of  churches  in  which  the  Lombard  dome 
on  squinches  or  on  pendentives,  with  three  apses  or  niches  opening 
into  the  central  area,  was  associated  with  a  long  three-aisled  nave 
(St.  Mary-in-the-Capitol,  begun  in  ninth  century;  Great  St. 
Martin's,  1150-70;  Apostles'  Church,  1160-99:  the  naves 
vaulted  later).  The  double  chapel  at  Schwarz-Rheindorf ,  near 
Bonn  (1151),  also  has  the  crossing  covered  by  a  dome  on  penden- 
tives. The  Lombard  influence  is 
also  clearly  manifest  in  many  ex- 
ternal details  of  these  Rhenish 
churches. 

The  vaulting  of  the  nave  itself 
was  developed  in  another  series  of 
edifices  of  imposing  size,  the  ca- 
thedrals of  Mayence  (1036)  Spires 
(Speyer),  the  cathedral-mausoleum 
of  the  Franconian,  Hohenstaufen 
and  earlier  Hapsburg  emperors, 
and  Worms,  and  the  Abbey  of 
Laach,  all  built  in  the  eleventh 
century  and  vaulted  early  in  the 
twelfth.  In  the  first  three  the  main 
vaulting  is  in  square  bays,  each 
covering  two  bays  of  the  nave,  the 
piers  of  which  are  alternately  lighter 
and  heavier  (Figs.  102, 103).  There 
was  no  triforium  gallery,  and  sta- 
bility was  secured  only  by  excessive 
thickness  in  the  piers  and  clear- 
story walls,  and  by  bringing  down  the  main  vault  as  near  to  the 
side-aisle  roofs  as  possible. 


Fit;.   IOJ. ONK  BAY  OF  CATHEDRAL, 

AT    SPIKES. 


EARLY    MEDIEVAL   ARCHITECTURE. 


RHENISH  EXTERIORS.  These  great  churches,  together  with 
those  of  Bonn  and  Limburg-on-the-Lahn  and  the  cathedral  of 
Treves  (Trier,  1047),  are  interesting,  not  only  by  their  size  and 
dignity  of  plan  and  the 
somewhat  rude  massive-  &»/  •• .  i 
ness  of  their  construction, 
but  even  more  so  by  the 
picturesqueness  of  their 
external  design  (Fig.  104). 
Especially  successful  is 
the  massing  of  the  large 
and  small  turrets  with  the 
lofty  nave-roof  and  with 
the  apses  at  one  or  both 
ends.  The  arcading  upon 
the  exterior  walls,  and  the 
open  arcaded  dwarf  gal- 
leries under  the  cornices 
of  the  apses,  gables,  and 
dome-turrets  gave  to  these 
Rhenish  churches  an  ex- 
ternal beauty  hardly 
equalled  in  other  con- 
temporary edifices.  This 

method  of  exterior  design,  and  the  system  of  vaulting  in  square 
bays  over  double  bays  of  the  nave,  were  probably  derived  from 
the  Lombard  churches  of  Northern  Italy,  with  which  the  ( Ger- 
man emperors  had  many  political  relations. 

The  Italian  influence  is  also  encountered  in  a  number  of  circu- 
lar churches  of  early  date,  as  at  Fulda  (ninth-eleventh  century), 
Driigelte,  Bonn  (baptistery,  demolished),  and  in  facades  like  that 
at  Kosheim,  which  is  a  copy  in  little  of  San  Zeno  at  Verona. 

Klsewhere  in  Germany  architecture  was  in  a  backward  state, 
especially  in  the  southern  duchies.  Outside  of  Saxony,  Franco- 


Fir,.  104. EAST  i:NI>  OF  CIIL'KCH  OK  TUB  APOS- 
TLES,   COLOGNE. 


I~S  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

nia,  and  the  Rhine  provinces,  very  few  works  of  importance  were 
erected  until  the  thirteenth  century. 

SECULAR  ARCHITECTURE.  Little  remains  to  us  of  the 
secular  architecture  of  this  period  in  Germany,  if  we  except  the 
great  feudal  castles,  especially  those  of  the  Rhine,  which  were, 
after  all,  rather  works  of  military  engineering  than  of  architectural 
art.  The  palace  of  Charlemagne  at  Aix  (the  chapel  of  which  was 
mentioned  on  p.  174)  is  known  to  have  been  a  vast  and  splendid 
group  of  buildings,  partly,  at  least  of  marble;  but  hardly  a  ves- 
tige of  it  remains.  Of  the  extensive  Kaiserburg  at  Goslar 
there  remain  well-defined  ruins  of  an  imposing  hall  of  assembly 
in  two  aisles  with  triple-arched  windows.  At  Brunswick  the  east 
wing  of  the  Burg  Dankwarderode  displays,  in  spite  of  modern 
alterations,  the  arrangement  of  the  chapel,  great  hall,  two  fortified 
towers,  and  part  of  the  residence  of  Henry  the  Lion.  The  Wart- 
burg  palace  of  Duke  Ludwig  III.  (dr.  1150)  is  more  generally 
known — a  three-storied  hall  with  windows  effectively  grouped 
to  form  arcades  (upper  part  modern);  while  at  Gelnhausen  and 
Miinzenberg  are  ruins  of  somewhat  similar  buildings.  A  few 
of  the  Romanesque  monasteries  of  Germany  have  left  partial 
remains,  as  at  Maulbronn,  which  was  almost  entirely  rebuilt  in 
the  Gothic  period,  and  isolated  buildings  in  Cologne  and  else- 
where. There  remain  also  in  Cologne  a  number  of  Romanesque 
private  houses  with  coupled  windows  and  stepped  gables. 

GREAT  BRITAIN.  Previous  to  the  Norman  conquest  (1066) 
there  was  in  the  British  Isles  little  or  no  architecture  worthy  of 
mention.  The  few  extant  remains  of  Saxon  and  Celtic  buildings 
reveal  a  singular  poverty  of  ideas  and  want  of  technical  skill. 
These  scanty  remains  are  mostly  of  towers  (those  in  Ireland  nearly 
all  round  and  tapering,  with  conical  tops,  their  use  and  date  being 
the  subjects  of  much  controversy)  and  crypts.  The  tower  of 
Marl's  Barton  is  the  most  important  and  best  preserved  of  those  in 
Kngland.  With  the  Norman  conquest,  however,  began  an  ex- 
traordinary activity  in  the  building  of  churches  and  abbeys. 


EARLY    MEDI/EVAL   ARCHITECTURE. 


179 


William  the  Conqueror  himself  founded  a  number  of  these,  and 
his  Norman  ecclesiastics  endeavored  to  surpass  on  British  soil  the 
contemporary  churches  of  Normandy.  The  new  churches  dif- 
fered somewhat  from  their  French  prototypes;  they  were  nar- 
rower and  lower,  but  much  longer,  especially  as  to  the  choir  and 
transepts.  The  cathedrals  of  Dur- 
ham (1096-1133)  and  Norwich 
(same  date)  are  i  nportant  examples 
(Fig.  105).  They  also  differed  from 
the  French  churches  in  two  impor- 
tant particulars  externally;  a  huge 
tower  rose  usually  over  the  cross- 
ing, and  the  western  portals  were 
small  and  insignificant.  Lateral 
entrances  near  the  west  end  were 
given  greater  importance  and  called 
Galilees.  At  Durham  a  Galilee 
chapel  (not  shown  in  the  plan) 
takes  the  place  of  a  porch  at  the 
west  end,  like  the  ante-churches 
of  St.  Benoit-sur-Loire  and  Vcze- 
lay. 

THE  NORMAN  STYLE.  The 
Anglo-Norman  builders  employed 
the  same  general  features  as  the 
Romanesque  builders  of  Normandy, 
but  with  more  of  picturesqueness 
and  less  of  refinement  and  technical  elegance.  Heavy  walls, 
recessed  arches,  round  mouldings,  cubic  cushion-caps,  clustered 
piers,  and  in  doorways  a  jamb-shaft  for  each  stepping  of  the 
arch  were  common  to  both  styles.  But  in  Kngland  the  (\>r- 

*  The  transept-like  eastern  termination,  known  as  the  Nine  Al- 
tars, is  a  Gothic  addition  of  1.24..'.  The  original  east  end  was  a 
plain  apse. 


105. PLAN'    (IP    DURHAM 

CATHKUKAL.* 


i8o 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


inthian  form  of  capital  is  rare,  its  place  being  taken  by  simpler 
forms. 

NORMAN  INTERIORS.  The  interior  design  of  the  larger 
churches  of  this  period  shows  a  close  general  analogy  to  contem- 
poraneous French  Norman  churches,  as  ap- 
pears by  comparing  the  nave  of  Waltham  or 
Peterboro'  with  that  of  Cerisy-la-Foret,  in 
Normandy.  Although  the  massiveness  of 
the  Anglo-Norman  piers  and  walls  plainly 
suggests  the  intention  of  vaulting  the  nave, 
this  intention  seems  never  to  have  been  car- 
ried out  except  in  small  churches  and  crypts. 
All  the  existing  abbeys  and  cathedrals  of 
this  period  had  wooden  ceilings  or  were,  like 
Tewkesbury, Norwich,  and  Gloucester,  vault- 
ed at  a  later  date.  Completed  as  they  were 
with  wooden  nave-roofs,  the  clearstory  was, 
without  danger,  made  quite  lofty  and  fur- 
nished with  windows  of  considerable  size. 
These  were  placed  near  the  outside  of  the 
thick  wall,  and  a  passage  was  left  between 
them  and  a  triple  arch  on  the  inner  face  of 
the  wall — a  device  imitated  from  the  abbeys 
at  Caen.  The  vaulted  side-aisles  were  low, 
with  heavy  ribs  and  wide  pier-arches,  above 
which  was  a  high  Iriforium  gallery  under  the 
side-roofs.  Thus  a  nearly  equal  height  was  assigned  to  each  of  the 
three  stories  of  the  bay,  disregarding  that  subordination  of  minor  to 
major  parts  which  gives  interest  to  an  architectural  composition. 
The  piers  were  quite  often  round,  as  at  Gloucester,  Hereford, 
Southwell,  and  Bristol  cathedrals  and  Shrewsbury  Abbey.  Some- 
times round  piers  alternated  with  clustered  piers,  as  at  Durham  and 
Waltham;  and  in  some  cases  clustered  piers  alone  were  employed, 
as  at  Peterboro',  Xorwich,  and  Winchester  transepts  (Fig.  106). 


FIG.    I  06. ONE    BAY    OP 

TRANSEPT,   WINCHESTER 
CATHEDRAL. 


EARLY    MEDIEVAL  ARCHITECTURE. 


181 


FACADES  AND  DOORWAYS.  All  the  details  were  of  the 
simplest  character,  except  in  the  doorways.  These  were  richly 
adorned  with  clustered  jamb-shafts  and  elaborately  carved  mould- 
ings, but  there  was  little  variety  in  the  details  of  this  carving.  The 
zigzag  was  the  most  common  feature,  though  birds' heads  with  the 
beaks  pointing  toward  the  centre  of  the  arch  were  not  uncommon. 
In  the  smaller  chuches  (Fig.  107)  the  doorways  were  better  pro- 
portioned to  the  whole  facade 
than  in  the  larger  ones,  in 
which  they  appear  as  relatively 
insignificant  features.  Very 
few  examples  remain  of  im- 
portant Norman  facades  in 
their  original  form,  nearly  all 
of  these  having  been  altered 
after  the  round  arch  was  dis- 
placed by  the  pointed  arch  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth 
century.  Ifiley  church  (Fig. 
107)  is  a  good  example  of  the 
style. 

SCOTLAND  possesses  many 
churches  of  this  period,  but 
nearly  all  were  ruined  or  in- 
jured in  the  Border  wars,  and 

few  of  these  rebuilt.  They  exhibit  a  provincial  character,  many 
years  behind  the  English  developments,  but  are  often  extremely 
picturesque.  Jedburgh  Abbey  is  the  finest  of  them;  Kelso  and 
lona  may  also  be  mentioned. 

SPAIN.  The  capture  of  Toledo,  in  1062,  from  the  Moors, 
began  the  gradual  emancipation  of  the  country  from  Moslem  rule, 
and  in  the  northern  provinces  a  number  of  important  churches 
were  erected  under  the  influence  of  French  Romanesque  models. 
The  use  of  domical  pendentives  (as  in  the  Panteon  of  S.  Isi- 


FIG.    107. — FRONT   OF    IFFLF.Y    CHURCH. 


182  HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

doro,  at  Leon,  and  in  the  cimborio  or  dome  over  the  choir  at  the 
crossing  in  old  Salamanca  cathedral)  was  probably  derived  from 
the  domical  churches  of  Aquitania  and  Anjou.  Elsewhere  the 
northern  Romanesque  type  prevailed  under  various  modifica- 
tions, with  long  nave  and  transepts,  a  short  choir,  and  a  complete 
chevet  with  apsidal  chapels.  The  church  of  St.  lago  at  Compos- 
tella  (1078)  is  the  finest  example  of  this  class.  These  churches 
nearly  all  had  groined  vaulting  over  the  side-aisles  and  barrel- 
vaults  over  the  nave,  the  constructive  system  being  substantially 
that  of  the  churches  of  Auvergne  and  the  Loire  Valley  (p.  167). 
They  differed,  however,  in  the  treatment  of  the  crossing  of  nave 
and  transepts,  over  which  was  usually  erected  a  dome  or  cupola 
on  pendentives  or  squinches,  covered  externally  by  an  imposing 
square  lantern  or  tower,  as  in  the  Old  Cathedral  at  Salamanca, 
already  mentioned  (1120-78)  and  the  Collegiate  Church  at  Toro. 
Occasional  exceptions  to  these  types  are  met  with,  as  in  the  basil- 
ican  wooden-roofed  church  of  S.  Millan  at  Segovia;  in  S.  Isidore 
at  Leon,  with  chapels  and  a  later-added  square  eastern  end,  and 
the  circular  church  of  the  Templars  at  Segovia. 

The  architectural  details  of  these  Spanish  churches  did  not 
differ  radically  from  contemporary  French  work.  As  in  France 
and  England,  the  doorways  were  the  most  ornate  parts  of  the 
design,  the  mouldings  being  carved  with  extreme  richness  and  the 
jambs  frequently  adorned  with  statues,  as  in  S.  Vincente  at  Avila. 
There  was  no  such  logical  and  reasoned-out  system  of  external 
design  as  in  France,  and  there  is  consequently  greater  variety  in 
the  facades.  Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  thing  about  the  archi- 
tecture of  this  period  is  its  apparent  exemption  from  the  influence 
of  the  Moorish  monuments  which  abounded  on  every  hand. 
This  may  be  explained  by  the  hatred  which  was  felt  by  the  Chris- 
tians for  the  Moslems  and  all  their  works. 

MONUMENTS.  DKRMANY:  Previous  to  nth  century:  Circular 
churches  of  Holy  Cross  nt  Minister,  and  of  Fnlda  ;  palace  chapel 


EARLY    MEDI/KVAL   ARCHITECTURE.  183 

of  Charlemagne  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  804;  St.  Stephen,  Mayencc, 
990;  primitive  nave  and  crypt  of  St.  Gereon,  Cologne,  loth  century; 
Lorsch. — nth  century:  Churches  of  Gcrnrode,  Goslar,  and  Mersc- 
burg  in  Saxony ;  cathedral  of  Bremen  ;  first  restoration  of  cathedral 
of  Treves  (Trier),  1010,  west  front,  1047;  Limburg-on-IIardt,  1024; 
St.  Willibrod,  Echternach,  1031;  St.  Godehard,  Ilildesheini,  1033; 
east  end  of  Mayence  Cathedral,  1036;  Church  of  Apostles  and  nave 
of  St.  Mary-in-Capitol  at  Cologne,  1036;  Minster  at  llersfeld.  1038; 
cathedral  of  Spires  (Speyer)  begun  1040;  Cathedral  Hildesheim, 
1061  ;  St.  Michael,  Hildesheim,  1062;  St.  James,  Cologne,  1067;  St. 
Joseph,  Rambcrg,  1073;  Abbey  of  Laach,  1093-1156;  round  churches 
of  Bonn,  Drugclte,  Nimeguen;  cathedrals  of  Paderborn  and  Min- 
dcn. — i2th  century:  Churches  of  Klus,  Paulinzelle,  Hamersleben, 
lioo-nio;  Johannisberg,  1130;  Worms,  the  Minster,  1118-83; 
Jerichau,  1144-60;  Abbey  Maulbroun,  1146-73;  Great  St.  Martin's, 
Cologne,  1150-1200;  Schwarz-Rheindorf,  1151;  Cathedral  Bruns- 
wick, 1172-94;  Liibeck,  1172;  also  churches  of  Gaudersheim,  Hcck- 
lingen,  Wiirzburg,  St.  Matthew  at  Treves,  Limburg-on-Lahn,  Sin- 
zig,  St.  Castor  at  Coblentz,  Dicsdorf,  Rosheim ;  round  churches  of 
Ottmarsheim  and  Rippen  (Denmark)  ;  cathedral  of  Basle,  cathedral 
and  cloister  of  Zurich  (Switzerland). 

ENGLAND:  Previous  to  nth  century:  Scanty  vestiges  of  Saxon 
church  architecture,  as  tower  of  Karl's  Barton,  nave  of  lligh- 
am  Ferrers,  round  towers  and  small  chapels  in  Ireland. — • 
nth  century:  Crypt  of  Canterbury  Cathedral,  1070;  chapel 
St.  John  in  Tower  of  London,  1070;  Winchester  Cathedral, 
1076-93  (nave  and  choir  rebuilt  later);  St.  Alban's  Abbey,  1077- 
1115  (partly  remodelled  later);  Shrewsbury  Abbey,  1083;  Tcwkcs- 
hiiry  Abbey,  1087-1123  (vaulted  later);  Gloucester  Cathedral 
nave,  1089-1100  (vaulted  later);  Rochester  Cathedral  nave,  west 
front,  cloisters,  and  chapter-house,  1090-1130;  Chichester  Cathe- 
dral, 1091-1148  (vaulting,  transept,  cloisters,  spires,  later);  Car- 
lisle Cathedral  nave,  transepts,  1093-1130;  Durham  Cathedral,  1095- 
1133  (Galilee  and  chapter-house,  1133-53;  "  Xine  Altars,"  1242); 
Norwich  Cathedral,  1096,  largely  rebuilt  1118-93;  Hereford  Cathe- 
dral, nave  and  choir.  irxj9-mo  (vaulted  later ).— I2th  century:  Kly 
Cathedral,  nave,  1107-33;  Southwell  Cathedral.  1108-35  (choir  re- 
built later);  Pcterboro'  Cathedral,  1117-45;  \\althain  Abbey,  early 
12th  century;  Church  of  Holy  Sepulchre,  Cambridge,  1130-35; 
Worcester  Cathedral  chapter-house,  11401?);  Oxford  Cathedral 


1 84  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

(Christ  Church),  1150-80;  Bristol  Cathedral  chapter-house  (square), 
1155;  Canterbury  Cathedral,  choir  of  present  structure  by  William 
of  Sens,  1175;  Romsey  Abbey,  late  I2th  century;  St.  Cross  Hos- 
pital near  Winchester,  iipo(?).  Many  more  or  less  important 
parish  churches  in  various  parts  of  England. 

SPAIN.     For  principal  monuments  of  9th-i2th  centuries,  see  text, 
latter  part  of  this  chapter. 


CHAPTER    XV. 

GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED:  Adamy,  Architektonik  des  gotischen 
Stils.  Corroyer,  L1  Architecture  gothique.  Enlart,  Manuel 
d'archeologie  }ranc,aise.  Gonse,  L'Art  gothique.  Hasak,  Dcr 
Kirchenbau;  Einzelheitcn  des  Kirchenbaues;  der  Wohnbau.  (in 
Hdbufh  d.  Arch.).  Moore,  Dei'clopment  and  Character  oj 
Gothic  Architecture.  Parker,  Introduction  to  Gothic  Architecture; 
Glossary  oj  Terms  used  in  Gothic  Architecture.  Porter,  A  fed  iccval 
Architecture,  Vol.  II.  Scott,  Mediarcal  Architecture.  Viollet-le- 
Duc,  Discourses  on  Architecture;  Dictiomiaire  raisonne  de  ^archi- 
tecture jranfaise. 

INTRODUCTORY.  The  architectural  styles  which  were  de- 
veloped in  Western  Europe  during  the  period  extending  from 
about  1150  to  1450  or  1500  received  in  an  unscientific  age  the 
wholly  erroneous  name  of  Gothic.  This  has,  however,  become 
so  fixed  in  common  usage  that  it  is  hardly  possible  to  substitute 
for  it  any  more  scientific  designation.  In  reality  the  architecture 
to  which  it  is  applied  was  nothing  more  than  the  sequel  and  out- 
growth of  the  Romanesque,  which  we  have  already  studied.  Its 
fundamental  principles  were  the  same;  it  was  concerned  with  the 
same  problems.  These  it  took  up  where  the  Romanesque  build- 
ers left  them,  and  worked  out  their  solution  under  new  conditions, 
until  it  had  developed  out  of  the  simple  and  massive  models  of  the 
early  twelfth  century  the  splendid  cathedrals  of  the  thirteenth  and 
fourteenth  centuries  in  England,  France,  Germany,  the  Low 
Countries  and  Spain. 

THE  CHURCH  AND  ARCHITECTURE.  The  twelfth  century 
was  an  era  of  widespread  intellectual  awakening,  and  of  profound 


1 86 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


economic,  social  and  political  changes.  The  revival  of  law  and 
jurisprudence,  the  rise  of  vernacular  literature,  the  growth  of 
commerce  and  of  the  use  of  money,  the  beginnings  of  physical 
science  based  upon  the  Aristotelian  philosophy,  and  the  power 
and  greatness  attained  by  the  church,  mark  the  twelfth  and  thir- 
teenth centuries  as  one  of  the  great  periods  in  the  history  of  human 
progress.  The  ideas  of  Church  and  State  were  becoming  more 
clearly  defined  in  the  common  mind.  The  claims  of  human  right 
were  beginning  to  present  themselves  alongside  of  those  of  human 
might.  The  struggle  for  ascendency  between  the  crown,  the 
feudal  barons,  the  pope,  bishops,  and  abbots,  in  France,  Ger- 
many, England,  and  other  countries,  presented  itself  in  varied 

aspects,  but  the  gen- 
eral outcome  was  es- 
sentially the  same. 
The  church  began  to 
appear  as  something 
behind  and  above  ab- 
bots, bishops,  kings, 
and  barons.  The  su- 
premacy of  the  papal 
authority  gained  in- 
creasing recognition, 
and  the  episcopacy 
began  to  overshadow 
the  monastic  institu- 
tions. The  preroga- 
tives of  the  crown  be- 
came more  iin.ily  es- 
tablished, and  thus  the 

Church  and  the  State  emerged  from  the  social  confusion  as  the 
two  institutions  divinely  appointed  for  the  government  of  men. 

I'nder  these  influences  ecclesiastical  architecture  advanced  with 
rapid  strides.     Xo  longer  hampered  by  monastic  restrictions,  it 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE. 


I87 


called  into  its  service  the  laity,  whose  guilds  of  masons  and  build- 
ers carried  from  one  diocese  to  another  their  constantly  increasing 
stores  of  constructive  knowledge.  By  a  wise  division  of  labor 
each  man  wrought  only  such  parts  as  he  was  specially  trained  to 
undertake.  The  master-builder — bishop, 
abbot,  or  mason — seems  to  have  planned 
only  the  general  arrangement  and  scheme 
of  the  building,  leaving  the  details  to  be 
worked  out  by  each  craftsman  accord- 
ing to  his  own  fancy,  the  traditions  of 
his  craft,  or  the  special  exigencies  of 
each  case.  Thus  was  produced  that  re- 
markable variety  in  unity  of  the  Gothic 
cathedrals;  thus,  also,  those  singular 
irregularities  and  makeshifts,  those  dis- 
crepancies and  alterations  in  the  design, 
which  are  found  in  every  great  work  of 
mediaeval  architecture.  Gothic  archi- 
tecture was  constantly  changing,  at- 
tacking new  problems  or  devising  new 
solutions  of  old  ones.  In  this  character 
of  constant  flux  and  development  it  con- 
trasts strongly  with  the  classic  styles,  in 
which  the  scheme  and  the  principles 
were  early  fixed  and  remained  substan- 
tially unchanged  for  centuries. 

STRUCTURAL  PRINCIPLES.  The  pointed  arch,  so  com- 
monly regarded  as  the  most  characteristic  feature  of  the  Gothic 
styles,  was  merely  an  incidental  feature  of  their  development.  It 
had  long  been  used  in  the  Orient,  and  occurs  repeatedly  in  French 
Romanesque  buildings.  What  was  really  distinctive  of  the 
Gothic  architecture  was  the  systematic  application  of  two  princi- 
ples partially  recognized  by  the  Romin  and  Byzantine  builders, 
but  which  seem  to  have  been  afterward  forgotten  until  they  were 


FIG.    tog.  — PLAN  OF  SAINTK 

CHAPELLK, PARIS. 
SHOWING;  SUPPRESSION 
OP  SIDE-WALLS. 


1 88 


HISTORY    OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


revived  by  the  later  Romanesque  architects.  The  first  of  these 
was  the  concentration  o)  strains  upon  isolated  points  of  support, 
made  possible  by  the  substitution  of  groined  for  barrel  vaults. 
This  led  to  a  corresponding  concentration  of  the  masses  of  ma- 
sonry at  these  points;  the  building  was  constructed  as  if  upon 
legs  (Fig.  108).  The  wall  became  a  mere  filling-in  between  the 
piers  or  buttresses,  and  in  time  was,  indeed,  practically  sup- 
pressed, immense  windows  filled  with  stained  glass  taking  its 
place.  This  is  well  illustrated  in  the  Sainte  Chapelle  at  Paris, 
built  1242-47  (Figs.  109,  124).  In  this  remarkable  edifice,  a 
series  of  groined  vaults  spring  from  slender  shafts  built  against 
deep  buttresses  which  receive  and  resist  all  the  thrusts.  The 

wall-spaces  between  them  are 
wholly  occupied  by  superb  win- 
dows filled  with  stone  tracery 
and  stained  glass.  It  would  be 
impossible  to  combine  the  ma- 
terials used  more  scientifically 
or  effectively.  The  cathedrals 
of  Gerona  (Spain)  and  of  Alby 
(France;  Fig.  126)  illustrate  the 
same  principle,  though  in  them 
the  buttresses  are  internal  and 
serve  to  separate  the  flanking 
chapels. 

The  second  distinctive  prin- 
ciple of  Gothic  architecture  was 
that  of  transmitted  Hi  rusts.     In 
Roman  buildings  the  thrust  of 
the  vaulting  was  resisted  wholly 
by  the   inertia  of   mass   in  the 
abutments.     In    Gothic  archi- 
tecture  thrusts  were   as    far   as  possible   resisted  by   counter- 
thrusts,  and  the  final  resultant  pressure  was  transmitted  by  ily- 


FIG.     HO. RARLV    GOTHIC    FLYING 

BUTTRESS. 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE.  189 

ing  half-arches  across  the  intervening  portions  of  the  structure 
to  external  buttresses  placed  at  convenient  points.  This  com- 
bination of  flying  half-arches  and  buttresses  is  called  the  flying- 
buttress  (Fig.  no).  It  reached  its  highest  development  in  the 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  in  the  cathedrals  of  central 
and  northern  France,  and  is  the  one  absolutely  novel  and  dis- 
tinctive feature  of  the  style. 

RIBBED  VAULTING.  These  two  principles  formed  the 
structural  basis  of  the  Gothic  styles.  Their  application  led  to  the 
introduction  of  two  other  elements, 
second  only  to  them  in  importance, 
ribbed  vaulting  and  the  pointed  arch. 

The  first  of  these  resulted  from  the 
effort  to  overcome  certain  practical 
difficulties  encountered  in  the  building 
of  large  groined  vaults.  As  ordinarily 
constructed,  a  groined  vault  like  that 

in  Fig.  47  must  be  built  as  one  struct-  PI0.  Iir._RIBBED  VAULT, 
ure,  upon  wooden  centrings  supporting  ENGLISH  TYPE  WITH  m- 

„,,.  VIDEO     GROIN-RIBS      AND 

its    whole    extent.      1  he    Romanesque  RIDGE-KIDS. 

architects  conceived  the  idea  of  con- 
structing an  independent  skeleton  of  ribs.*  Two  of  these  were 
built  against  the  wall  (wall-ribs),  two  across  the  nave  (trans- 
verse ribs);  and  two  others  were  made  to  coincide  with  the 
groins  (Figs.  101,  in).  The  groin-ribs,  intersecting  at  the  centre 
of  the  vault,  divided  each  bay  into  four  triangular  portions, 
or  compartments,  each  of  which  was  really  an  independent  vault 
which  could  be  separately  constructed  upon  light  centrings  sup- 
ported by  the  groin-ribs  themselves.  This  principle,  though 
identical  in  essence  with  the  Roman  system  of  brick  skeleton-ribs 
for  concrete  vaults,  was,  in  application  and  detail,  superior  to  it, 
both  from  the  scientific  and  artistic  point  of  view.  The  ribs, 

*  It  is  now  generally  believed  that  the  earliest  medieval  vault  thus 
constructed  is  the  nave  vault  of  S.  Ambrogio  at   Milan   (Fig.  <ji). 


190 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


richly  moulded,  became,  in  the  hands  of  the  Gothic  architects, 
important  decorative  features.  In  practice  the  builder  gave  to 
each  set  of  ribs  independently  the  curvature  he  desired.  The 
vaulting-surfaces  were  then  easily  twisted  or  warped  so  as  to  fit  the 

various  ribs,  which,  being 
already  in  place,  served  as 
guides  for  their  construction. 
THE  POINTED  ARCH  was 
adopted  to  remedy  the  diffi- 
culties encountered  in  the 
construction  of  oblong  vaults. 
It  is  obvious  that  where  a 
narrow  semi-cylindrical  vault 
intersects  a  wide  one,  it  pro- 
duces either  what  are  called 
penetrations,  as  at  a  (Fig. 
1 1 2), or  intersections  like  that 
at  b,  both  of  which  are  awk- 
ward in  aspect  and  hard  to 
construct.  If,  however,  one 
or  both  vaults  be  given  a 
pointed  section,  the  narrow 
vault  may  be  made  as  high 

as  the  wide  one.  It  is  then  possible,  with  but  little  warping 
of  the  vaulting  surfaces,  to  make  them  intersect  in  groins  c, 
which  are  vertical  plane  curves  instead  of  wavy  loops  like  a 
and  b. 

The  Gothic  architects  availed  themselves  to  the  full  of  these 
two  devices.  The  groin-ribs  were  commonly  semicircular,  but 
the  wall-ribs  and  the  transverse  ribs  were,  without  exception, 
pointed  arches,  with  the  apex  of  each  nearly  or  quite  at  the  level 
of  the  groin  intersection.  The  pointed  arch,  thus  introduced  as 
the  most  convenient  form  for  these  ribs,  was  soon  applied  to  other 
parts  of  the  structure,  especially  the  windows  and  pier-arches, 


FIG.    112 PENETRATIONS    AND    INTERSEC- 
TIONS   OF    VAULTS. 

a,  a.  Penetrations  by  small  semi- 
circular vaults  sprung  from  same  level, 
b.  Intersection  by  small  semicircular 
vault  sprung  from  higher  level;  groins 
f.-r>n  wavy  lines.  c,  Intersection  by 
narrow  pointed  vault  sfrurg  from  same 
level;  groins  are  plane  curves. 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE. 


which  would  not  otherwise  fit  well  the  wall-spaces  under  the 
wall-ribs  of  the  nave  and  aisle  vaulting. 

This  entire  system  of  vaulting  constituted  the  inner  roof  or 
stone  ceiling  of  the  church.  But  since  it  was  impossible  to  make 
a  vault  of  stone  wholly  weather  proof,  the  exterior  surface  provid- 
ing numerous  pockets  in  which  water,  snow  and  ice  were  sure  to 
gather,  an  external  protective  roof  of  wood,  covered  with  tile, 
slate,  copper  or  lead  was  always  built  over  the  vaulting,  forming 
the  externally  visible  high-peaked  roof  of  the  church. 

TRACERY  AND  GLASS.  With  the  growth  in  the  size  of  the 
windows  and  the  progressive  suppression  of  the  lateral  walls  of 
vaulted  structures,  stained  glass  came  more  and  more  generally 
into  use.  Its  introduction  not  only  resulted  in  a  notable  heighten- 
ing and  enriching  of  the  colors  and  scheme  of  the  interior  decora- 
tion, but  reacted  on  the  architecture,  intensifying  the  very  causes 
which  led  to  its  introduction. 
It  stimulated  the  increase  in  the 
size  of  windows,  and  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  walls,  and  contributed 
greatly  to  the  development  of 
tracery.  This  latter  feature  was 
an  absolute  necessity  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  glass.  Its  evolution 
can  be  traced  (Figs.  113,  114, 
115)  from  the  simple  coupling 
of  twin  windows  under  a  single 
hood-mould  or  discharging  arch, 
to  the  florid  net-work  of  the  fif- 
teenth century.  In'  its  earlier 
forms  it  consisted  merely  of  dec- 
orative openings,  circles,  and  quatrefoils,  designed  as  if  pierced 
through  slabs  of  stone  (plate-tracery},  filling  the  window-heads 
over  coupled  windows.  Later  attention  was  bestowed  upon  the 
form  of  the  stonework,  which  was  made  lighter  and  richly 


FIG.     113.—  PLATE-TRACERY.     CHARL- 
TON-ON-OXMORE. 


192 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


moulded  (bar-tracery},  rather  than  upon  that  of  the  openings 
(Fig.  114).  Then  the  circular  and  geometric  patterns  employed 
were  abandoned  for  more  flowing  and  capricious  designs  (Flam- 
boyant tracery,  Fig.  115)  or  (in  England)  for  more  rigid  and 
rectangular  arrangements  (Perpendicular,  Fig.  138).  It  is  cus- 
tomary to  distinguish  the 
periods  and  styles  of 
Gothic  architecture  by  the 
character  of  the  tracery. 

CHURCH  PLANS.  The 
original  basilica-plan  un- 
derwent radical  modifica- 
tions during  the  twelfth 
and  fifteenth  centuries. 
These  resulted  in  part 
from  the  changes  in  con- 
struction which  have  been 
described,  and  in  part 
from  altered  ecclesiastical 
conditions  and  require- 
ments. Gothic  church 
architecture  was  based  on 
cathedral  design;  and  the 
requirements  of  the  cathe- 
dral differed  in  many  respects  from  those  of  the  monastic 
churches  of  the  preceding  period. 

The  most  important  alterations  in  the  plan  were  in  the  choir 
and  transepts.  The  choir  was  greatly  lengthened,  the  transepts 
often  shortened.  The  choir  was  provided  with  two  and  often  four 
side-aisles,  and  one  or  both  of  these  was  commonly  carried  en- 
tirely around  the  apsidal  termination  of  the  choir  forming  a  single 
or  double  ambulatory.  This  combination  of  choir,  apse,  and  am- 
bulatory was  called,  in  French  churches,  the  chci'ct. 

Another  advance  upon  Romanesque  models  was  the  multipli- 


FIG.    114. BAR-TRACERY,    ST.    MICHAEL'S, 

WARFIELD. 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 


193 


cation  of  chapels — a  natural  consequence  of  the  more  popular 
character  of  the  cathedral  as  compared  with  the  abbey.  Fre- 
quently lateral  chapels  were  built  at  each  bay  of  the  side-aisles, 
filling  up  the  space  between  the  deep  buttresses,  flanging  the  nave 
as  well  as  the  choir.  They  were  also  carried  around  the  chart  in 
most  of  the  French  cathedrals  (Paris,  Bourges,  Reims,  Amiens, 
Beauvais,  and  many  others);  in  many  of  those  in  Germany 
(Magdeburg,  Cologne,  Frauenkirche  at  Treves),  Spain  (Toledo, 
Leon,  Barcelona,  Sego- 
via, etc.),  and  Belgium 
(Tournay, Antwerp).  In 
England  the  choir  had 
more  commonly  a  square 
eastward  termination. 
Secondary  transepts  oc- 
cur frequently,  and  these 
peculiarities,  together 
with  the  narrowness  and 
great  length  of  most  of 
the  plans,  make  of  the 
English  cathedrals  a 
class  by  themselves. 

PROPORTIONS      AND 
COMPOSITION.     Along 

with  these  modifications  of  the  basilican  plan  should  be  noticed 
a  great  increase  in  the  height  and  slenderness  of  all  parts  of  the 
structure.  The  lofty  clearstory,  the  arcaded  triforium-passage 
or  gallery  beneath  it,  the  high  pointed  pier-arches,  the  multiplica- 
tion of  slender  clustered  shafts,  and  the  reduction  in  the  area  of 
the  piers,  gave  to  the  (lothic  churches  an  interior  aspect  wholly 
different  from  that  of  the  simpler,  lower,  and  more  massive  Ro- 
manesque edifices.  The  perspective  effects  of  the  plans  thus 
modified,  especially  of  the  complex  choir  and  chart  with  their 
lateral  and  radial  chapels,  were  remarkably  enriched  and  varied. 


FIG.    115. ROSE  WINDOW.   CHURCH  OF  ST.  ol'KN. 

ROUEN. 


194 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


The  exterior  was  even  more  radically  transformed  by  these 
changes,  and  by  the  addition  of  towers  and  spires  to  the  fronts, 
and  sometimes  to  the  transepts  and  to  their  intersection  with  the 

nave.  The  deep  buttresses, 
terminating  in  pinnacles, 
the  rich  traceries  of  the 
great  lateral  windows,  the 
triple  portals  profusely 
sculptured,  rose  windows  of 
great  size  under  the  front 
and  transept  gables,  com- 
bined to  produce  effects  of 
marvellously  varied  light 
and  shadow,  and  of  com- 
plex and  elaborate  struct- 
ural beauty,  totally  unlike 
the  broad  simplicity  of  the 
Romanesque  exteriors. 

DECORATIVE  DETAIL. 
The  medieval  designers 
aimed  to  enrich  every  con- 
structive feature  with  the 
most  effective  play  of  lights 
and  shades,  and  to  em- 
body in  the  decorative  de- 
tail the  greatest  possible 
amount  of  allegory  and 
symbolism,  and  sometimes 
of  humor  besides.  The 

deep  doorways  and  pier-arches  were  moulded  with  a  rich  suc- 
cession of  hollow  and  convex  members;  and  carvings  of  saints, 
apostles,  martyrs,  and  angels,  virtues  and  vices,  allegories  of 
reward  and  punishment,  and  an  extraordinary  world  of  mon- 
strous and  grotesque  beasts,  devils,  and  goblins  filled  the  cnpi- 


FIG.     I  if).- — FLAMBOYANT    DK.TAIL     FROM    PUL- 
PIT   IN    STKASIirKi:    fATIIKUUAI.. 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE.  IQ5 

tals  and  door-arches,  peeped  over  tower-parapets,  or  leered 
and  grinned  from  gargoyles  and  corbels.  Another  source  of 
decorative  detail  was  the  application  of  tracery  like  that  of  the 
windows  to  wall-panelling,  to  balustrades,  to  openwork  gables, 
to  spires,  to  choir-screens,  and  other  features,  especially  in  the 
late  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  (cathedrals  of  York, 
Rouen,  Cologne;  Henry  VII. 's  Chapel,  Westminster).  And 
finally  in  the  carving  of  capitals  and  the  ornamentation  of 
mouldings  the  artists  of  the  thirteenth  century  and  their  successors 
abandoned  completely  the  classic  models  and  traditions  which 
still  survived  in  the  early 
twelfth  century.  The 
later  monastic  builders 
began  to  look  directly  to 
nature  for  suggestions  of 
decorative  form.  The 
lay  builders  who  sculp- 
tured the  capitals  and 
crockets  and  finials  of 

the   early    Gothic  cathe-  PIG.  n-. — EARLY  GOTHIC  CARVING. 

drals  adopted  and  fol- 
lowed to  its  finality  this  principle  of  recourse  to  nature,  espe- 
cially to  plant  life.  At  first  the  budding  shoots  of  early  spring 
were  freely  imitated  or  skilfully  conventionalized,  as  being  by  their 
thick  and  vigorous  forms  the  best  adapted  for  translation  into 
stone  (Fig.  117).  During  the  thirteenth  century  the  more  ad- 
vanced stages  of  plant  growth,  and  leaves  more  complex  and  de- 
tailed, furnished  the  models  for  the  carver,  who  displayed  his  skill 
in  a  closer  and  more  literal  imitation  of  their  minute  veinings  and 
indentations. (Fig.  1 18).  This  artistic  adaptation  of  natural  forms 
to  architectural  decoration  degenerated  later  into  a  minutely 
realistic  copying  of  natural  foliage,  in  which  cleverness  of  execu- 
tion took  the  place  of  original  invention.  The  spirit  of  display  is 
characteristic  of  all  late  Gothic  work.  Slenderness,  minuteness 


196 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


of  detail,  extreme  complexity  and  intricacy  of  design,  an  unre- 
strained profusion  of  decoration  covering  every  surface,  a  lack  of 
largeness  and  vigor  in  the  conceptions,  are  conspicuous  traits  of 
Gothic  design  in  the  fifteenth  century,  alike  in  France,  England, 
Germany,  Spain,  and  the  Low  Countries.  Having  worked  out  to 
their  conclusion  the  structural  principles  bequeathed  to  them  by 
the  preceding  centuries,  the  authors  of  these  later  works  seemed 

to  have  devoted  them- 
selves to  the  elabora- 
tion of  mere  decorative 
detail,  and  in  technical 
finish  surpassed  all  that 
had  gone  before  (Fig. 
116). 

CHARACTERISTICS 
SUMMARIZED.  In  the 
light  of  the  preceding 
explanations  Gothic 
architecture  may  be 
defined  as  that  system 
of  structural  design 
and  decoration  which 
grew  up  out  of  the 

effort  to  combine,  in  one  harmonious  and  organic  conception, 
the  basilican  plan  with  a  complete  and  systematic  construction  of 
groined  vaulting.  Its  development  was  controlled  throughout  by 
considerations  of  stability  and  structural  propriety,  but  in  the  ap- 
plication of  these  considerations  the  artistic  spirit  was  allowed 
full  scope  for  its  exercise.  Refinement,  good  taste,  and  great  fer- 
tility of  imagination  characterize  the  details  and  ornaments  of 
Gothic  structures.  While  the  Greeks,  in  harmonizing  the  re- 
quirements of  utility  and  beauty  in  architecture,  approached  the 
problem  from  the  a-sthetic  side,  the  Gothic  architects  did  the  same 
from  the  structural  side.  Their  admirably  reasoned  structures 


FIG.    11$. CAKV1NT,,    DECORATED    PERIOD,    FH 

SOUTHWELL    MINSTER. 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE.  197 

express  as  perfectly  the  idea  of  vastness,  mystery,  and  complexity 
as  do  the  Greek  temples  that  of  simplicity  and  monumental 
repose. 

The  excellence  of  Gothic  architecture  lay  not  so  much  in  its 
individual  details  as  in  its  perfect  adaptation  to  the  purposes  for 
which  it  was  developed — its  triumphs  were  achieved  in  the  build- 
ing of  cathedrals  and  large  churches.  In  the  domain  of  civil  and 
domestic  architecture  it  produced  nothing  comparable  with  its 
ecclesiastical  edifices,  because  it  was  the  requirements  of  the 
cathedral  and  not  of  the  palace,  town-hall,  or  dwelling,  that  gave 
it  its  form  and  character. 

PERIODS.  The  history  of  Gothic  architecture  is  commonly 
divided  into  three  periods,  chiefly  distinguished  by  the  character 
of  the  window-tracery.  It  must,  however,  be  admitted  that  this 
division,  like  all  efforts  to  cut  the  history  of  architectural  develop- 
ment into  definite  slices  called  periods,  is  a  purely  arbitrary  pro- 
cess. The  various  recognizable  phases  even  of  tracery-design 
were  not  reached  at  the  same  time  in  different  parts  even  of  one 
country,  nor  did  the  movement  in  this  field  of  design  coincide 
exactly  with  that  in  any  other.  It  is,  nevertheless,  often  conveni- 
ent to  group  the  works  of  the  style  into  broadly  indicated  periods 
in  which  certain  characteristics  dominate;  and  the  commonly 
recognized  periods  are  therefore  here  given,  with  a  summary  of 
the  characteristics  of  each. 

EARLY  POINTED  PERIOD.  [Early  French;  Early  English  or 
Lancet  Period  in  England;  Early  German,  etc.]  Simple  ribbed 
vaults;  general  simplicity  and  vigor  of  design  and  detail;  conven- 
tionalized foliage  of  small  plants;  plate- tracery,  and  narrow  win- 
dows coupled  under  pointed  arch  with  circular  foiled  openings  in 
the  window-head.  (In  Erance,  1160  to  1275.) 

MIDDLE  POINTED  PERIOD.  [Kavonnaul  in  Erance;  Decorated 
or  Geometric  in  England.]  Vaults  more  perfect;  in  England  mul- 
tiple ribs  and  liernes;  greater  slenderness  and  loftiness  of  propor- 
tions; decoration  much  richer,  less  vigorous;  more  naturalistic 


198  HISTORY    OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

carving  of  mature  foliage;  walls  nearly  suppressed,  windows  of 
great  size,  bar-tracery  with  slender  moulded  mullions  and  geo- 
metric combinations  (circles  and  cusps)  in  window-heads,  circu- 
lar (rose)  windows.  (In  France,  1275  to  1375.) 

FLORID  GOTHIC  PERIOD.  [Flamboyant  in  France;  Perpendicu- 
lar in  England.]  Vaults  of  varied  and  richly  decorated  design; 
fan-vaulting  and  pendants  in  Fngland,  vault-ribs  curved  into 
fanciful  patterns  in  Germany  and  Spain;  profuse  and  minute 
decoration  and  cleverness  of  technical  execution  substituted  for 
dignity  of  design;  highly  realistic  carving  and  sculpture,  flowing 
or  flamboyant  tracery  in  France;  perpendicular  bars  with  horizon- 
tal transoms  and  four-centred  arches  in  England:  "branch- 
tracery"  in  Germany.  (In  France,  1375  to  1525.) 


CHAPTER    XVI. 
GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN    FRANCE. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED:  As  before,  Adamy,  Corroyer,  Knlart, 
Hasak,  Moore,  Porter,  Reber,  Viollet-le-Duc.*  Also  Archives  de 
la  commission  des  monuments.  Chapuy,  Le  moycn  age  monu- 
mental. Chateau,  Histoire  el  caracteres  dt  ^architecture  Jranfaise. 
Davies,  Architectural  Studies  in  France.  Gonse,  L'Art  Gothique. 
Huss,  Rational  Building  (tr.  from  V.-le-Duc).  Johnson,  Early 
French  Architecture.  King,  The  Study  book  of  Medicwal  Archi- 
tecture and  Art.  Lassus  and  Viollet-le-Duc,  Notre  Dame  de 
Paris.  Nesfield,  Specimens  0}  Mediarjal  Architecture.  Pettit, 
Architectural  Studies  in  France. 

CATHEDRAL-BUILDING  IN  FRANCE.  In  the  development 
of  the  principles  outlined  in  the  foregoing  chapter  the  church 
builders  of  France  led  the  \vay.  They  surpassed  all  their  contem- 
poraries in  readiness  of  invention,  in  quickness  and  directness 
of  reasoning,  and  in  artistic  refinement.  These  qualities  were 
especially  manifested  in  the  extraordinary  architectural  activity 
which  marked  the  second  half  of  the  twelfth  century  and  the  first 
half  of  the  thirteenth.  This  was  the  great  age  of  cathedral-build- 
ing in  France.  The  adhesion  of  the  bishops  to  the  royal  cause, 
and  their  position  in  popular  estimation  as  the  champions  of  jus- 
tice and  human  rights,  led  to  the  rapid  recovery  by  the  episcopacy 
of  its  ancient  power  and  influence.  The  cathedral,  as  the  throne- 
church  of  the  bishop,  became  a  truly  popular  institution.  New 
cathedrals  were  founded  on  every  side,  especially  in  the  Royal 

*  Consult  especially  articles    AKCHITKCTCKK,  CATH£DRALE,  CHAP- 

ELLE,    CONSTRICTION,    Kl.I.ISK,    M.MSON,    VoUTK. 


200  HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

Domain  and  the  adjoining  provinces  of  Normandy,  Burgundy, 
and  Champagne,  and  their  construction  was  warmly  seconded  by 
the  people,  the  communes,  and  the  municipalities.  "Nothing 
to-day,"  says  Viollet-le-Duc,*  "  unless  it  be  the  commercial  move- 
ment which  has  covered  Europe  with  railway  lines,  can  give  an 
idea  of  the  zeal  with  which  the  urban  populations  set  about  build- 
ing cathedrals;  .  .  .  a  necessity  at  the  end  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury because  it  was  an  energetic  protest  against  feudalism."  The 
collapse  of  the  unscientific  Romanesque  vaulting  of  some  of  the 
earlier  cathedrals  and  the  destruction  by  fire  of  others  stimulated 
this  movement  by  the  necessity  for  their  immediate  rebuilding. 
The  entire  reconstruction  of  the  cathedrals  of  Baycux,  Bayonne, 
Cambray,  Evreux,  Laon,  Lisieux,  Le  Mans,  Noyon,  Poitiers, 
Senlis,  Soissons,  and  Troyes  was  begun  between  1130  and  1200. f 
The  cathedrals  of  Bourges,  Chartres,  Paris,  and  Tours,  and  the 
royal  abbey  of  St.  Denis,  all  of  the  first  importance,  were  begun 
during  the  same  period,  and  during  the  next  quarter-century  those 
of  Amiens,  Auxerre,  Rouen,  Reims,  Scez,  and  many  others. 
After  1250  the  movement  slackened  and  finally  ceased.  Few 
important  cathedrals  were  erected  during  the  latter  half  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  the  chief  among  them  being  at  Beauvais  (ac- 
tually begun  1247),  Clermont,  Coutances,  Limoges,  Narbonne, 
and  Rodez.  During  this  period,  and  through  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries,  French  architecture  was  concerned  rather  with 
the  completion  and  remodelling  of  existing  cathedrals  than  the 
founding  of  new  ones.  There  were,  however,  many  important 
parish  churches  and  civil  or  domestic  edifices  erected  within  this 
period. 

STRUCTURAL  DEVELOPMENT:  VAULTING.  By  the  middle  of 
the  twelfth  century  the  use  of  barrel-vaulting  over  tin-  nave  had 
been  generally  abandoned  and  groined  vaulting  with  its  isolated 

*  Diclinnnairc  rtiisoiuii'  dc  ['architecture  fnin^iiisc,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  jSo, 
281. 

t  See  I'Yrree,  Chronology  of  Cathedral  Churches  of  ITUIICC. 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN   FRANCE. 


2O I 


points  of  support  and  resistance  had  taken  its  place.  The  timid 
experiments  of  the  Clunisian  architects  at  Vezelay  in  the  use  of 
the  pointed  arch  and  vault-ribs  also  led,  in  the  second  half  of 
the  twelfth  century,  to  far-reaching  results.  The  builders  of  the 
great  Abbey  Church  of  St.  Denis,  near  Paris,  begun  in  1140 
by  the  Abbot  Suger,  appear  to  have  been  the  first  to  develop  these 
tentative  devices  into  a  system.  In  the  original  choir  of  this 
noble  church  all  the  arches,  alike  of  the 
vault-ribs  (except  the  groin-ribs,  which 
were  semicircles)  and  of  the  openings, 
were  pointed  and  the  vaults  were  through- 
out constructed  with  cross-ribs,  wall-ribs, 
and  groin-ribs.  Of  this  early  work  only 
the  chapels  remain.  In  other  contempor- 
ary monuments,  as  for  instance  in  the  ca- 
thedral of  Sens,  the  adoption  of  these 
devices  was  only  partial  and  hesitating. 

NOTRE  DAME  AT  PARIS.  The  next 
great  step  in  advance  was  taken  in  the 
cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  *  at  Paris  (Figs. 
119,  1 20,  128).  This  was  begun  under 
Maurice  de  Sully  in  1163,  on  the  site  of  the 
twin  cathedrals  of  Ste.  Marie  and  St. 
Ktienne,  and  the  choir  was,  as  usual,  the 
first  portion  erected.  By  1196  the  choir, 
transepts,  and  one  or  two  bays  of  the  nave, 
and  by  1235  the  entire  nave  and  west 

front,  were  finished.  The  completeness,  harmony,  and  vigor 
of  conception  of  this  remarkable  church  contrast  strikingly  with 
the  makeshifts  and  hesitancy  displayed  in  many  contemporary 

*  This  cathedral  will  be  hereafter  referred  to,  for  the  sake  of 
brevity,  by  the.  name  of  Xutrc  Datnc.  Other  cathedrals  having  the 
same  name  will  be  distinguished  by  the  addition  of  the  name  of  the 
city,  as  "  Notre  Dame  at  Chalons-sur-Marne." 


PIG.     119. PLAN    OP    NOTRK 

DAMK,   PARIS. 


202 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


monuments  in  other  provinces.  The  difficult  vaulting  over 
the  radiating  bays  of  the  double  ambulatory  was  here  treated 
with  great  elegance.  By  increasing  the  number  of  supports 
successively  in  the  exterior  circuit  of  each  aisle  (Fig.  119)  each 
trapezoidal  bay  of  the  vaulting  was  divided  into  three  or  five 
easily  managed  triangular  compartments.  Circular  shafts  were 
used  between  the  central  and  side  aisles.  The  side  aisles  were 
doubled  and  those  next  the  centre  were  built  in  two  stories,  pro- 


ne.   120. 1NTKRIOR    OF    NOTRE    DAME,    PARIS. 


viding  ample  galleries  behind  a  very  open  triforium.  The  nave 
was  unusually  lofty  and  covered  with  six-part  vaults  of  admirable 
execution.  The  vault-ribs  were  vigorously  moulded  and  made  to 
spring  from  distinct  vaulting-shafts,  of  which  three  rested  upon  the 
cap  of  each  of  the  massive  piers  below  (Fig.  120).  The  Cathedral 
of  Bourges,  begun  1 190,  closely  resembled  that  of  Paris  in  plan. 
Both  were  designed  to  accommodate  vast  throngs  in  their  excep- 
tionally broad  central  aisles  and  double  side  aisles,  but  Bourges 
has  no  side-aisle  galleries,  though  the  inner  aisles  are  much  loftier 
than  the  outer  ones.  Though  later  in  date  the  vaulting  of 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN   FRANCE. 


203 


Bourges  is  inferior  to  that  of  Notre  Dame,  especially  in  the  treat- 
ment of  the  trapezoidal  bays  of  the  ambulatory. 

The  masterly  examples  set  by  the  vault-builders  of  St.  Denis 
and  Notre  Dame  were  not  at  once  generally  followed.  Noyon, 
Senlis,  and  Soissons,  contemporary  with  these,  are  far  less  com- 
pletely Gothic  in  style.  At  Le  Mans  the  groined  vaulting  of  the 
cathedral,  erected  in  1158,  is  singularly  primitive  and  heavy, 
although  nearly  con- 
temporary with  that 
of  Notre  Dame  (Fig. 
121). 

DOMICAL  GROINED 
VAULTING.  The  builders 
of  the  South  and  West, 
influenced  by  Aquitanian 
models,  adhered  to  the 
square  plan  and  domical 
form  of  vaulting-bay,  even 
after  they  had  begun  to 
employ  groin-ribs.  The 
latter,  as  at  first  used  by 
them  in  imitation  of 
Northern  examples,  had 
no  organic  function  in 

the  vault,  which  was  still  built  like  a  dome.  About  1145-1160 
the  cathedral  of  St.  Maurice  at  Angers  was  vaulted  with 
square,  groin-ribbed  vaults,  domical  in  form  but  not  in  con- 
struction. The  joints  no  longer  described  horizontal  circles  as 
in  a  dome,  but  oblique  lines  perpendicular  to  the  groins  and 
meeting  in  zig-zag  lines  at  the  ridge  (Fig.  122).  This  method 
became  common  in  the  West  and  was  afterward  generally 
adopted  by  the  English  architects.  The  Cathedrals  of  Poitiers 
'(1162)  and  Laval  (La  Trinite",  1180-1185)  are  examples  of 
this  system,  which  at  Le  Mans  met  with  the  Northern  system 


FIG.     121.—    LE    MANS    CATHEDRAL.      NAVE. 


204 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


and  produced  in  the  cathedral  the  awkward  compromise  de- 
scribed above. 

THIRTEENTH-CENTURY  VAULTING.  Early  in  the  thir- 
teenth century  the  church-builders  of  Northern  France  abandoned 
the  use  of  square  vaulting-bays  and  six-part  vaults.  By  the 
adoption  of  groin-ribs  and  the  pointed  arch,  the  building  of 
vaults  in  oblong  bays  was  greatly  simplified.  Each  bay  of  the 
nave  received  its  own  complete  vault,  thus  doing  away  with  all 

necessity  for  alternately 
light  and  heavy  piers. 
It  is  not  quite  certain 
when  and  where  this 
system  was  first  adopted 
for  the  complete  vaulting 
of  a  church.  It  is,  how- 
ever, probable  that  the 
Cathedral  of  Chartres, 
begun  in  1 194*  and  com- 
pleted before  1240,  de- 

FIG.  122.— GROINED  VAULT  WITH  ZIG-ZAG  RIDGE-  SCrVCS        tlllS        distinction, 

although  it  is  possible 
that  the  vaults  of  Sois- 
sons  and  Noyon  may 
slightly  antedate  it. 

Troyes  (1214-1267),  Rouen  (1202-1220),  Reims  (1212-1242), 
Auxerre  (1215-1234,  nave  fourteenth  century),  Amiens  (1220- 
1288),  and  nearly  all  the  great  churches  and  chapels  begun  after 
1 200,  employ  the  fully  developed  oblong  vault. 

BUTTRESSING.  Meanwhile  the  increasing  height  of  the 
clearstories  and  the  use  of  double  aisles  compelled  the  bestowal 
of  especial  attention  upon  the  buttressing.  The  nave  and  choir 
of  Chartres,  the  choirs  of  Notre  Dame,  Bourges,  Rouen,  and 

*  Except  W.  front  and  S.  W.  tower,  retained  from  earlier  build- 
ing of  1145-1170. 


JOINTS. 

a  shows  a  small  section  of  filling  with  courses 
parallel  to  the  ridjje,  for  comparison  with  the 
other  compartments. 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  IN  FRANCE.      2O$ 

Reims,  the  chevct  and  later  the  choir  of  St.  Denis,  afford  early  ex- 
amples of  the  flying-buttress  (Fig.  no).  These  were  at  first 
simple  and  of  moderate  height.  Single  half-arches  spanned  the 
side  aisles;  in  Notre  Dame  they  crossed  the  double  aisles  in  a 
single  leap.  Later  the  buttresses  were  given  greater  stability  by 
the  added  weight  of  lofty  pinnacles.  An  intermediate  range  of 
buttresses  and  pinnacles  was  built  over  the  intermediate  piers 
where  double  aisles  flanked  the  nave  and  choir,  thus  dividing  the 
single  flying  arch  into  two  arches.  At  the  same  time  a  careful 
observation  of  statical  defects  in  the  earlier  examples  led  to  the 
introduction  of  double  arches  andof  otherdevices  to  stiffen  and  to 
beautify  the  whole  system.  At  Reims  and  Amiens  these 
features  received  their  highest  development,  though  later  exam- 
ples are  frequently  much  more  ornate. 

INTERIOR  DESIGN.  The  progressive  change  outlined  in  the 
last  chapter,  by  which  the  wall  was  practically  suppressed,  the 
windows  correspondingly  enlarged,  and  every  part  of  the  struc- 
ture made  loftier  and  more  slender,  resulted  in  the  evolution  of  a 
system  of  interior  design  well  represented  by  the  nave  of  Amiens. 
The  second  story  or  gallery  over  the  side  aisle  disappeared,  but 
the  aisle  itself  was  very  high.  The  triforium  was  no  longer  a  gal- 
lery, but  a  richly  arcaded  passage  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall,  cor- 
resj>onding  to  the  roofing-space  over  the  aisle,  and  generally 
treated  like  a  lower  stage  of  the  clearstory.  Nearly  the  whole 
space  aljove  it  was  occupied  in  each  bay  by  the  vast  clearstory 
window  filled  with  simple  but  effective  geometric  tracery  over 
slender  mullions.  The  side  aisles  were  lighted  by  windows 
which,  like  those  in  the  clearstory,  occupied  nearly  the  whole 
available  wall-space  under  the  vaulting.  The  piers  and  shafts 
were  all  clustered  and  remarkably  slender.  The  whole  construc- 
tion of  this  vast  edifice,  which  covers  nearly  eighty  thousand  square 
feet,  is  a  marvel  of  lightness,  of  scientific  combinations,  and  of  line 
execution.  Its  great  vault  rises  to  a  height  of  one  hundred  and 
forty  feet.  The  nave  of  St.  Denis,  though  less  lofty,  resembles  it 


2O6 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


closely  in  style  (Fig.  123).  Earlier  cathedrals  show  less  of  the 
harmony  of  proportion,  the  perfect  working  out  of  the  relation  of 
all  parts  of  the  composition  of  each  bay,  so  conspicuous  in  the 
Amiens  type,  which  was  followed  in  most 
of  the  later  churches. 

WINDOWS:  TRACERY.  The  clearstory 
windows  of  Noyon,  Soissons,  Sens,  and 
the  choir  of  Vezelay  (1200)  were  simple 
arched  openings  arranged  singly,  in  pairs, 
or  in  threes.  In  the  cathedral  of  Chartres 
(1194-1220)  they  consist  of  two  arched 
windows  with  a  circle  above  them,  form- 
ing a  sort  of  plate  tracery  under  a  single 
arch.  In  the  chapel  windows  of  the 
choir  at  Reims  (1215)  the  tracery  of  mul- 
lions  and  circles  was  moulded  inside  and 
out,  and  the  intermediate  triangular 
spaces  all  pierced  and  glazed.  Rose  win- 
dows were  early  used  in  front  and 
transept  facades.  During  the  thirteenth 
and  fourteenth  centuries  they  were  made 
of  vast  size  and  great  lightness  of  tracery, 
as  in  the  transepts  of  Notre  Dame  (1257) 
and  the  west  front  of  Amiens  (1288). 

From  the  design  of  these  windows  is  derived  the  name  Ray- 
onnant,  often  applied  to  the  French  Gothic  style  of  the  period 

"7  S-137S- 

THE  SAINTE  CHAPELLE.  In  this  beautiful  royal  chapel  at 
Paris,  built  1242-47,  Gothic  design  was  admirably  exemplified  in 
the  noble  windows  15  by  50  feet  in  size,  which  perhaps  furnished 
the  models  for  those  of  Amiens  and  St.  Denis.  Each  was  divided 
by  slender  mullions  into  four  lancet-like  lights  gathered  under  the 
rich  tracery  of  the  window-Jiead.  They  were  filled  with  stained 
glass  of  the  most  brilliant  but  harmonious  hues.  They  occupy 


FIG.   123. ON'E  BAY,  ABBEY 

OF    ST.    DEMS. 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN   FRANCE. 


207 


the  whole  available  wall-space,  so  that  the  ribbed  vault  internally 
seems  almost  to  rest  on  walls  of  glass,  so  slender  are  the  visible 
supports  and  so  effaced  by  the  glow  of  color  in  the  windows. 
Certainly  lightness  of  construction  and  the  suppression  of  the  wall- 
masonry  could  hardly  be  carried  further  than  here  (Fig.  124). 
Among  other  chapels  of  the  same  type  are  those  in  the  palace  of 
St.  Germain-en-Laye  (1240),  and  a  later  example  in  the  chateau 
of  Vincennes,  begun  by  Charles  VI.,  but  not  finished  till  1525. 

PLANS.  The  most  radical  change  from  the  primitive  basilican 
type  was,  as  already  ex- 
plained in  the  last  chapter, 
the  continuation  of  the  side- 
aisles  around  the  apse  to 
form  an  ambulatory,  and 
with  the  addition  of  chapels 
between  the  radiating  apse 
buttresses,  a  chevet  (Fig. 
125).  These  may  have 
originated  in  the  apsidal 
chapels  of  Romanesque 
churches  in  Auvergne  and 
the  South,  as  at  Issoire, 
Clermont-Ferrand,  LePuy, 
and  Toulouse.  They  gen- 
erally superseded  the  tran- 
sept-chapels of  earlier 
churches,  and  added 
greatly  to  the  beauty  of 
the  interior  perspective,  es- 
pecially when  the  encircling  FIG.  124.— 1  UK  SA1NTE  CH  APKt.t.E.  PARIS. 

aisles  of  the  chevet  were 

doubled.  Notre  Dame  had  at  first  a  double  ambulatory,  with- 
out chapels,  these  being  added  later.  Bourges  has  only  five 
very  small  semicircular  chapels.  Chartrcs  (choir  1198)  and  Le 


208 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


Mans,  as  reconstructed  between  1217  and  1254,  have  double 
ambulatories  and  radial  chapels.  After  1220  the  second  ambu- 
latory no  longer  appears.  Noyon,  Soissons,  Reims,  Amiens, 
Troyes,  and  Beauvais,  Tours,  Bayeux,  and  Coutances,  Cler- 
mont,  Limoges,  and  Narbonne  all  have  the  single  ambulatory 
and  radiating  chevet-chapels.  The  Lady-chapel  in  the  axis  ot 
the  church  was  often  made  longer  and  more  important  than  the 
other  chapels,  as  at  Amiens,  Le  Mans, 
Rouen,  Bayeux,  and  Coutances.  Chap- 
els also  flanked  the  choir  in  most  of  the 
cathedrals  named  above,  and  Notre 
Dame,  Alby,  Laon,  and  Tours  also 
have  side  chapels  to  the  nave.  These 
are  of  late  date;  those  of  Notre  Dame, 
1300-1320.  The  only  cathedrals  with 
complete  double  side-aisles  alike  to 
nave,  choir,  and  chevet,  were  Notre 
Dame  and  Bourges.  It  is  somewhat 
singular  that  the  German  cathedral  of 
Cologne  is  the  only  one  in  which  all 
these  various  characteristic  French 
features  were  united  in  one  design  (see 
Fig.  146). 

Local  considerations  had  full  sway 
in  France,  in  spite  of  the  tendency 
toward  unity  of  type.  Thus  Dol,  Laon, 

and  Poitiers  have  square  eastward  terminations;  Chalons  has 
no  ambulatory;  Bourges  no  transept.  In  Notre  Dame  the 
transept  was  almost  suppressed.  At  Soissons  one  transept,  at 
Noyon  both,  had  semicircular  ends.  Alby,  a  late  cathedral 
of  brick,  founded  in  1 280,  but  mostly  built  during  the  four- 
teenth century,  has  neither  side-aisles  nor  transepts,  its  wide 
nave  being  flanked  by  chapels  separated  by  internal  buttresses 
(Fig.  126). 


125. PLAN    OP    AMIENS 

CATHEDRAL. 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  IN  FRANCE. 


209 


SCALE.  The  French  cathedrals  were  nearly  all  of  imposing 
dimensions.  Noyon,  one  of  the  smallest,  is  333  feet  long;  Sens 
measures  354.  Laon,  Bourges,  Troyes,  Notre  Dame,  Le  Mans, 
Rouen,  and  Chartres  vary  from 
396  to  437  feet  in  extreme  length; 
Reims  measures  483,  and  Amiens, 
the  longest  of  all,  521  feet.  Notre 
Dame  is  124  feet  wide  across  the 
five  aisles  of  the  nave;  Bourges, 
somewhat  wider.  The  central 
aisles  of  these  two  cathedrals,  and 
of  Laon,  Amiens,  and  Beauvais, 
have  a  span  of  not  far  from  40  feet 
from  centre  to  centre  of  the  piers; 
while  the  ridge  of  the  vaulting, 
which  in  Notre  Dame  is  108  feet 
above  the  pavement,  and  in 
Bourges  125,  reaches  in  Amiens  a 
height  of  140  feet,  and  of  nearly 
1 60  in  Beauvais.  This  emphasis 

of  the  height,  from  3  to  3^  times  the  clear  width  of  the  nave  or 
choir,  is  one  of  the  most  striking  features  of  the  French  cathe- 
drals. It  produces  an  impressive  effect,  but  tends  to  dwarf  the 
great  width  of  the  central  aisle. 

EXTERIOR  DESIGN.  Here,  as  in  the  interior,  every  feature  had 
its  constructive  raison  d'etre,  and  the  total  effect  was  determined 
by  the  fundamental  structural  scheme.  This  was  especially  true 
of  the  lateral  elevations,  in  which  the  pinnacled  buttresses,  the 
flying  arches,  and  the  traceried  windows  of  the  side-aisle  and 
clearstory,  repeated  uniformly  at  each  bay,  were  the  principal  ele- 
ments of  the  design.  The  transept  facades  and  main  front  al- 
lowed greater  scope  for  invention  and  fancy,  but  even  here  (he 
interior  membering  gave  the  key  to  the  composition.  Strong 
buttresses  marked  the  division  of  the  aisles  and  resisted  the 


PIC,.    126. PLAN    OF   CATHEDRAL 

OP    ALBV. 


210 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


thrust  of  the  terminal  pier  arches,  and  rose  windows  filled  the 
greater  part  of  the  wall  space  under  the  end  of  the  lofty  vaulting. 
The  whole  structure  was  crowned  by  a  steep-pitched  roof  of 
wood,  covered  with  lead,  copper,  or  tiles,  to  protect  the  vault  from 

damage  by  snow  and 
moisture.  This  roof 
occasioned  the  steep 
gables  which  crowned 
the  transept  facades. 
The  main  front  was 
frequently  adorned, 
above  the  triple  portal, 
with  a  gallery  of  niches 
or  tabernacles  filled 
with  statues  of  kings, 
and  the  end  of  the  roof 
above  masked  by  an 
arcade.  Different  types 
of  composition  are  rep- 
resented by  Chartres, 
Notre  Dame,  Amiens, 
Reims,  and  Rouen,  of 
which  Notre  Dame 
(Fig.  127)  and  Reims 


FIG.    127.  -  WEST   FRONT   OF    NOTRE    DAME,    PARIS. 


tllC 


Notre    Dame   is  espe- 

cially remarkable  for  its  stately  simplicity  and  the  even  balanc- 
ing of  horizontal  and  vertical  elements. 

PORCHES.  In  most  French  church  facades  the  porches  were 
the  most  striking  features,  with  their  dee])  shadows  and  sculptured 
arches.  The  Romanesque  porches  were  usually  limited  in  depth 
to  the  thickness  of  the  front  wall.  The  Gothic  builders  secured 
increased  depth  by  projecting  the  portals  out  beyond  the  wall,  and 
crowned  them  with  elaborate  gables.  The  wide  central  door  was 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN   FRANCE. 


211 


divided  in  two  by  a  pier  adorned  with  a  niche  and  statue.  Over 
this  the  tympanum  of  the  arch  was  carved  with  scriptural  re- 
liefs; the  jambs  and  arches  were  profusely  adorned  with  figures 
of  saints,  apostles,  martyrs,  and  angels,  under  elaborate  canopies. 
The  porches  of  Laon,  Bourges,  Amiens,  and  Reims  are  especially 
deep  and  majestic  in  effect,  the  last-named  (completed  1380)  being 


FIG.    128. — WEST    FRONT   OF   ST.    MACLOU,    ROUKN'. 

the  richest  of  all.  Some  of  the  transept  facades  also  had  imposing 
portals.  Those  of  Chartres  (1210-1245)  rank  among  the 
finest  works  of  (iothic  decorative  architecture.  The  portals  of 
the  fifteenth  and  early  sixteenth  centuries  were  remarkable  for  the 
extraordinary  richness  of  their  decorative  tracery,  as  at  Abbe- 
ville, Alencon,  the  cathedral  and  St.  Maclou  at  Rouen  (Kig.  128), 
Tours,  Troyes,  Vendome,  etc. 

TOWERS  AND  SPIRES.        The   emphasi/ing  of   vertical    ele- 
ments reached  its  fullest  expression  in  the  towers  and  spires  of  the 


212  HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

churches.  What  had  been  at  first  merely  a  lofty  belfry  roof  was 
rapidly  developed  into  the  spire,  rising  three  hundred  feet  or  more 
into  the  air.  This  development  had  already  made  progress  in  the 
Romanesque  period,  and  the  south  spire  of  Chartres  is  a  notable 
example  of  twelfth-century  steeple  design.  The  transition  from 
the  square  tower  to  the  octagonal  pyramid  was  skilfully  effected 
by  means  of  corner  pinnacles  and  dormers.  After  1200  the  de- 
velopment was  in  the  direction  of  richness  and  complexity  of  de- 
tail, rather  than  of  radical  constructive  modification.  The  north- 
ern spire  of  Chartres  (1515)  and  the  spires  of  Bordeaux,  Cou- 
tances,  Senlis,  and  the  Flamboyant  church  of  St.  Maclou  at 
Rouen,  illustrate  this  development.  In  Normandy  central  spires 
were  common,  rising  over  the  crossing  of  nave  and  transepts.  In 
some  cases  the  designers  of  cathedrals  contemplated  a  group  of 
towers;  this  is  evident  at  Chartres,  Coutances,  Laon,  and  Reims. 
This  intention  was,  however,  never  realized;  it  demanded  re- 
sources beyond  even  the  enthusiasm  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
Only  in  rare  instances  were  the  spires  of  any  of  the  towers  com- 
pleted, and  the  majority  of  the  French  towers  have  square  termi- 
nations, with  low-pitched  wooden  roofs,  generally  invisible  from 
below.  In  general,  French  towers  are  marked  by  their  strong 
buttresses,  solid  lower  stories,  huge  twin  windows  in  each  side  of 
the  belfry  proper,  and  a  skilful  management  of  the  transition  to  an 
octagonal  plan  for  the  belfry  or  the  spire. 

CARVING  AND  SCULPTURE.  The  general  superiority  of 
French  Gothic  work  was  fully  maintained  in  its  decorative  de- 
tails. Especially  fine  is  the  figure  sculpture,  which  in  the  thir- 
teenth and  fourteenth  centuries  attained  true  nobility  of  expres- 
sion, combined  with  great  truthfulness  and  delicacy  of  execution. 
Some  of  its  finest  productions  arc-  found  in  the  great  doorway 
jambs  of  the  west  portals  of  the  cathedrals,  and  in  the  ranks  of 
throned  and  adoring  angels  which  adorned  their  deep  arches. 
These  reach  their  highest  beauty  in  the  portals  of  Reims  (1:580). 
The  tabcrnadcs  or  carved  niches  in  which  such  statues  were  set 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  IN  FRANCE. 


213 


were  important  elements  in  the  decoration  of  the  exteriors  of 
churches. 

Foliage  forms  were  used  for  nearly  all  the  minor  carved  orna- 
ments, though  grotesque  and  human  figures  sometimes  took  their 
place.  The  gargoyles  through  which  the  roofwater  was  dis- 
charged clear  of  the  building  were  almost  always  composed  in 
the  forms  of  hideous  monsters;  and  symbolic  beasts,  like  the  oxen 
in  the  towers  of  Laon,  or  monsters  like  those  which  peer  from  the 


a 


FIG.     129. FRENCH    GOTHIC    CAPITALS. 

a,  From  Sainte  Chapcllc,  Paris,  i3th  century.     i>,  14th-century  capital  from  transept 
of  Notre  Dame,  Paris,     c,  15th-century  capital  from  north  spire  of  Chartres. 

tower  balustrades  of  Notre  Dame,  were  employed  with  some 
mystical  significance  in  various  parts  of  the  building.  But  the 
capitals,  corbels,  crockets,  and  finials  were  mostly  composed  of 
floral  or  foliage  forms.  Those  of  the  twelfth  and  early  thirteenth 
centuries  were  for  the  most  part  simple  in  mass,  and  crisp  and 
vigorous  in  design,  imitating  the  strong  shoots  of  early  spring. 
The  capitals  were  tall  and  slender,  concave  in  profile,  with  heavy 
square  or  octagonal  abaci.  After  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
century  the  carving  became  more  realistic;  the  leaves,  larger  and 
more  mature,  were  treated  as  if  applied  to  the  capital  or  moulding, 
not  as  if  they  grew  out  of  it.  The  execution  and  detail  were  finer 
and  more  delicate,  in  harmony  with  the  increasing  slenderness  and 


214 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


lightness  of  the  architecture  (Fig.  129  a,  b).  Tracery  forms 
now  began  to  be  profusely  applied  to  all  manner  of  surfaces,  and 
open-work  gables,  wholly  unnecessary  from  the  structural  point  of 
view,  but  highly  effective  as  decorations,  adorned  the  portals  and 
crowned  the  windows. 

LATE  GOTHIC  MONUMENTS.     So  far  our  attention  has  been 

mainly  occupied  with  the  master- 
pieces erected  previous  to  1250. 
Among  the  cathedrals,  relatively 
few  in  number,  whose  construction 
is  referable  to  the  second  half  of 
the  century,  that  of  Beauvais 
stands  first  in  importance.  Be- 
gun on  a  colossal  scale  in  1225, 
the  choir  and  chapels  were  not 
completed  until  1270.  But  the 
collapse  in  1284  of  the  central 
tower  and  excessively  lofty  vault- 
ing of  this  cathedral,  which  still 
lacked  the  nave,  compelled  its  en- 
tire reconstruction,  the  number  of 
the  piers  being  doubled  and  the 
span  of  the  pier  arches  corre- 
spondingly reduced.  As  thus  re- 
built, the  central  aisle  was  51 
feet  wide  from  centre  to  centre 
of  opposite  piers,  and  163  feet 

high  to  the  top  of  the  vault.  Transepts  were  added  after  1500. 
Limoges  and  Narbonne,  begun  in  1272  on  a  large  scale 
(though  not  equal  in  si/e  to  Beauvais),  were  likewise  never 
completed.  Both  had  choirs  of  admirable  plan,  with  well- 
designed  chevet-chapels.  Many  oilier  cathedrals  begun  during 
this  period  were  completed  only  after  long  delays,  as,  for  in- 
stance, Meaux,  Rode/-  ( i  277),  Toulouse  (1272),  and  Alby  (i  282), 


FIG.  130. — OPEN'WOKK  GABLE,  FROM 
FRONT  OF  ROUEN  CATHEDRAL. 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  IN  FRANCE. 


2I5 


finished  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  Clermont  (1248),  com- 
pleted under  Napoleon  III.  But  between  1260  or  1275  and 
1350  work  was  actively  prosecuted  on  many  still  incomplete 
cathedrals.  The  choirs  of  Beauvais  (rebuilding),  Limoges, 
and  Narbonne  were  finished  after  1330 ;  and  towers,  transept- 


FIll.     131. -SOUTH    PORCH    OF    CHARTKES    CATHEDRAL. 

facades,  portals,  and  chapels  added  to  many  others  of  earlier 
date. 

The  style  of  this  period  is  sometimes  designated  as  Rayon- 
nant,  from  the  characteristic  wheel  tracery  of  the  rose  windows, 
and  the  prevalence  of  circular  forms  in  the  lateral  arched  windows 
of  the  late  thirteenth  and  early  fourteenth  centuries.  The  great 
rose  windows  in  the  transepts  of  Notre  Dame,  dating  from  1257, 
are  typical  examples  of  the  style.  Those  of  Rouen  cathedral  be- 
long to  the  same  category,  though  of  later  date.  The  facade  of 
Amiens,  completed  by  i2cSX,  is  one  of  the  finest  works  of  this 


2l6  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

style,  of  which  an  early  example  is  the  elaborate  parish  church  of 
St.  Urbain  at  Troyes. 

THE  FLAMBOYANT  STYLE.  The  geometric  treatment  of 
the  tracery  and  the  minute  and  profuse  decoration  of  this  period 
gradually  merged  into  the  fantastic  and  unrestrained  extrava- 
gances of  the  Flamboyant  style,  which  prevailed  until  the  ad- 
vent of  the  Renaissance — say  1525.  The  continuous  logical  de- 
velopment of  forms  ceased,  and  in  its  place  caprice  and  display 
controlled  the  arts  of  design.  The  finest  monument  of  this  long 
period  is  the  fifteenth-century  nave  and  central  tower  of  the 
church  of  St.  Ouen  at  Rouen,  a  parish  church  of  the  first  rank, 
begun  in  1318,  but  not  finished  until  1515.  The  tracery  of  the 
lateral  windows  is  still  chiefly  geometric,  but  the  western  rose 
window  (Fig.  115)  and  the  magnificent  central  tower  or  lantern 
exhibit  in  their  tracery  the  florid  decoration  and  wavy,  flame-like 
lines  of  this  style.  Slenderness  of  supports  and  the  suppression 
of  horizontal  lines  are  here  carried  to  an  extreme;  and  the  church, 
in  spite  of  its  great  elegance  of  detail,  lacks  the  vital  interest  and 
charm  of  the  earlier  Gothic  churches.  The  cathedral  of  Alencon 
and  the  church  of  St.  Maclou  at  Rouen  have  portals  with  unusu- 
ally elaborate  detail  of  tracery  and  carving;  while  the  unfinished 
facade  of  Rouen  cathedral  (1509)  surpasses  all  other  examples  in 
the  lace-like  minuteness  of  its  open-work  and  its  profusion  of 
ornament.  The  churches  of  St.  Jacques  at  Dieppe,  and  of  St. 
Wulfrand  at  Abbeville,  the  facades  of  Tours  and  Troyes,  are 
among  the  masterpieces  of  the  style.  The  upper  part  of  the  fa- 
cade  of  Reims  (1380-1428)  belongs  to  the  translation  from  the 
Rayonnant  to  the  Flamboyant.  While  some  works  of  this  period 
are  conspicuous  for  the  richness  of  their  ornamentation,  others  are 
noticeably  bare  and  poor  in  design,  like  St.  Merri  and  St.  Severin 
in  Paris.  The  most  successful  examples  of  this  period  are  rather 
its  minor  than  its  major  undertakings:  altars,  tombs,  choir- 
screens,  portals  and  spires,  choir-stalls  and  pulpits,  often  exe- 
cuted in  parish  churches  or  chapels;  e.g.  the  church  of  Brou  at 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE    IN    FRANCE.  217 

Bourg-en-Bresse,  the  chapel  of  St.  Esprit  at  Rue,  Ste.  Madeleine 
at  Troyes,  etc. 

SECULAR  AND  MONASTIC  ARCHITECTURE.  The  building 
of  cathedrals  did  not  absorb  all  the  architectural  activity  of  the 
Trench  during  the  Gothic  period,  nor  did  it  by  any  means  put  an 
end  to  monastic  building.  While  there  are  few  Gothic  cloisters  to 
equal  the  Romanesque  cloisters  of  Puy-en-Vclay,  Montmajour, 
Elne,  and  Moissac,  many  of  the  abbeys  either  rebuilt  their 
churches  in  the  Gothic  style  after  1150,  or  extended  and  remod- 
elled their  conventual  buildings.  The  cloisters  of  Fontfroide, 
Chaise-Dieu,  and  the  Mont  St.  Michel  rival  those  of  Romanesque 
times,  while  many  new  refectories  and  chapels  were  built  in  the 
same  style  with  the  cathedrals.  The  most  complete  of  these 
Gothic  monastic  establishments,  that  of  the  Mont  St.  Michel  in 
Normandy,  presents  a  remarkable  aggregation  of  buildings 
clustering  around  the  steep  isolated  rock  on  which  stands  the 
abbey  church,  built  in  the  eleventh  century  (choir  and  chapels 
remodelled  in  the  sixteenth).  The  great  refectory  and  dormi- 
tory, the  "Hall  of  the  Knights,"  cloisters  and  chapels,  built  in 
several  vaulted  stories  against  the  cliffs,  are  admirable  examples 
of  the  vigorous  pointed-arch  design  of  the  early  thirteenth 
century. 

Hospitals  like  that  of  St.  Jean  at  Angers  (late  twelfth  century), 
or  those  of  Chartres,  Ourscamps,  Tonnerre,  and  Beaune,  illus- 
trate how  skilfully  the  French  could  modify  and  adapt  the  de- 
tails of  their  architecture  to  the  special  requirements  of  civil  archi- 
tecture. Great  numbers  of  charitable  institutions  were  built  in 
the  middle  ages,  but  few  of  those  in  France  are  now  extant.  Town 
halls  were  built  in  the  fifteenth  century  in  some  places  where  a 
certain  amount  of  popular  independence  had  been  secured  (e.g. 
Compiegne).  The  florid  sixteenth-century  Palais  de  Justice  at 
Rouen  (1499-1508)  is  an  example  of  another  branch  of  secular 
Gothic  architecture.  In  all  these  monuments  the  adaptation  of 
means  to  ends  is  admirable.  Wooden  ceilings  and  roofs  replaced 


218  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

stone,  wherever  required  by  great  width  of  span  or  economy  of 
construction.  There  was  little' sculpture;  the  wall-spaces  were 
not  suppressed  in  favor  of  stained  glass  and  tracery;  while  the 
roofs  were  usually  emphasized  and  adorned  with  elaborate  crest- 
ings  and  finials  in  lead  or  terra-cotta. 

DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE.  These  same  principles  con- 
trolled the  designing  of  houses,  farm  buildings,  barns,  granaries, 
and  the  like.  The  common  closely-built  French  city  house  of 
the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  century  is  illustrated  by  many  extant 
examples  at  Cluny,  Provins,  and  other  towns.  A  shop  opening 
on  the  street  by  a  large  arch,  a  narrow  stairway,  and  two  or  three 
stories  of  rooms  lighted  by  clustered,  pointed-arched  windows, 
constituted  the  common  type.  The  street  front  was  usually 
gabled  and  the  roof  steep.  In  the  fourteenth  or  fifteenth  century 
half-timbered  construction  began  to  supersede  stone  for  town 
houses,  as  it  permitted  of  encroaching  upon  the  street  by  pro- 
jecting the  upper  stories.  Many  of  the  half-timbered  houses 
of  the  fifteenth  century  were  of  elaborate  design.  The  heavy 
oaken  uprights  were  carved  with  slender  colonnettes;  the  hori- 
zontal sills,  bracketed  out  over  the  street,  were  richly  moulded; 
picturesque  dormers  broke  the  sky-line,  and  the  masonry  filling 
between  the  beams  was  frequently  faced  with  enamelled  tiles. 

The  more  considerable  houses  or  palaces  of  royalty,  nobles,  and 
wealthy  citizens  rivalled,  and  in  time  surpassed,  the  monastic 
buildings  in  richness  and  splendor.  Their  architecture  is  a 
development  from  that  of  the  earlier  feudal  castles,  whose 
enormously  massive  walls,  round  towers,  corbelled  and  machico- 
lated  roof-galleries,  drawbridges,  barbicans  and  central  donjon 
or  keep,  were  designed  wholly  from  the  military  point  of  view.* 
By  1250,  the  increasing  ascendancy  of  the  royal  power  and 
more  settled  conditions  permitted  the  erection  of  less  frowning 
and  more  comfortable  residences  for  the  nobility,  especially  in 

*  Sec  articles  ARCHITECTI'KK  MIUTAIKE  and  CHATEAU,  in  Diction- 
nairc  raisunnc  of  Viollet-le-Duc. 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  IN  FRANCE. 


219 


the  cities.  The  earlier  examples,  however,  still  retain  the  mili- 
tary aspect,  with  moat  and  donjon,  as  in  the  Louvre  of  Charles 
V.,  demolished  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  chateau  de 
Pierrefonds,  remodelled  by  V.le-Duc  upon  the  ruins  of  a  late 
fourteenth  century  castle,  is  a  modernized  example  of  these 
semi-military  palaces.  The  finest  palaces  are  of  late  date,  and 


FIG.    132. HOUSE    OF   JACQUES    CCEUK,    BOUROES 

(After  Viollet-le-Duc.) 

the  type  is  well  represented  by  the  Ducal  Palace  at  Nancy 
(1476),  the  Hotel  de  Cluny  (1485),  at  Paris,  the  Hotel  Jacques 
Coeur  at  Bourges  (Fig.  132),  and  the  east  wing  of  Blois  (1498- 
1515).  These  palaces  are  elaborately  planned,  with  large  halls, 
many  staircases,  and  handsome  courts;  they  are  also  extremely 
picturesque  with  their  square  and  circular  towers,  slender  tur- 
rets, elalx>rate  dormers,  and  rich  carved  detail. 

MONUMENTS:    (C.  =  cathedral ;   A.  =  abbey;   trans.  =  transept ; 
each  edifice  is  given  under  the  date  of  its  commencement;  subse- 


220  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

quent  alterations  in  parentheses.)  Between  1130  and  1200:  Vezelay 
A.,  ante-chapel,  1130;  St.  Germer-de-Fly  C.,  1130-1150  (chapel 
later)  ;  St.  Denis  A.,  choir,  1140  (choir  rebuilt,  nave  and  trans., 
1240);  Sens  C,  1140-68  (W.  front,  I3th  century;  chapels,  spire, 
I4th)  ;  Senlis  C.,  1145-83  (trans.,  spire,  I3th  century);  Noyon  C., 
1149-1200  (W.  front,  vaults,  I3th  century)  ;  St.  Germain-des-Pres 
A.,  Paris,  choir,  1150  (Romanesque  nave)  ;  Angers  C.,  1150  (choir, 
trans.,  1274);  Langres,  1150-1200;  Laon  C,  1150-1200;  Le  Mans 
C,  nave,  1150-58  (choir,  1217-54)  ;  Soissons  C.,  1160-70  (choir, 
1212;  nave  chapels,  I4th  century);  Poitiers  C.,  1162-1204;  Notre 
Dame,  Paris,  choir,  1163-96  (nave,  \V.  front  finished,  1235;  trans, 
fronts  and  chapels,  1257-75)  ;  Chartres  C.,  W.  end,  1145-1170;  rest, 
mainly  1194-98  (trans,  porches,  W.  rose,  1210-1260;  N.  spire,  1506)  ; 
Tours  C,  1170  (rebuilt,  1267;  trans,  portals,  1375;  W.  portals, 
chapels,  I5th  century;  towers  finished,  1507-47)  ;  Laval  C.,  1180-85 
(choir,  i6th  century);  Mantes,  church  Notre  Dame,  1180-1200; 
Bourges  C,  1190-95  (E.  end,  1210;  \V.  end,  1275)  ;  St.  Nicholas  at 
Caen,  1190  (vaults,  I5th  century);  Reims,  church  St.  Remy,  choir, 
end  of  I2th  century  (Romanesque  nave)  ;  church  St.  Leu  d'Esser- 
ent,  choir  late  I2th  century  (nave,  I3th  century)  ;  Lyons  C..  choir, 
end  of  I2th  century  (nave,  I3th  and  I4th  centuries)  ;  litampes, 
church  Notre  Dame,  I2th  and  I3th  centuries. — I3th  century:  Ev- 
reux  C.,  1202-75  (trans.,  central  tower,  1417;  W.  front  rebuilt,  i6th 
century)  ;  Rouen  C.,  1202-20  (trans,  portals,  1280;  W.  front,  1507)  ; 
Nevcrs,  1211,  N.  portal,  1280  (chapels,  S.  portal,  15th  century)  ; 
Reims  C,  1212-42  (W.  front,  1380;  W.  towers,  1420)  ;  Bayonne 
C.,  1213  (nave,  vaults,  W.  portal,  I4th  century)  ;  Troves  C.,  choir, 
1214  (central  tower,  nave,  W.  portal,  and  towers,  i5th  century); 
Auxerre  C.,  1215-34  (nave,  W.  end,  trans.,  I4th  century)  ;  Amiens 
C.,  1220-88;  St.  Etienne  at  Chalons-sur-Marne,  1230  (spire,  1520); 
Scez  C.,  1230,  rebuilt  1260  (remodelled  I4th  century)  ;  Notre  Dame 
de  Dijon,  1230;  Reims,  Lady  chapel  of  Archbishop's  palace,  1230; 
Chapel  Royal  at  St.  Germain-cn-Laye,  1240;  Ste.  Chapellc  at  Paris, 
1242-47  (W.  rose,  I5th  century);  Coutances  C.,  1254-74;  Reauvais 
C.,  1247-72  (rebuilt  1337-47;  trans,  portals,  1500-48);  Notre  Dame 
de  Grace  at  Clermont,  1248  (finished  1350);  Dol  C.,  I3th  century; 
St.  Martin-des-Champs  at  Paris,  nave  i^th  century  (choir  Roman- 
esque) ;  Bordeaux  C.,  1260;  Narbonne  C.,  1272-1320;  Limoges, 
1273  (finished  i6th  century);  St.  I'rbain,  Troves,  1264;  Rode/.  C., 
1277-1385  (altered,  completed  l6th  century);  church  St.  Ouentin, 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  IX  FRANCE.      221 

1280-1300;  St.  Bcnigne  at  Dijon,  rebuilt  1280-91 ;  Alby  C,  1282  (nave, 
Hth,  choir,  I5th  century;  S.  portal,  1473-1500)  ;  Meaux  C.,  mainly 
rebuilt  1284  (W.  end  much  altered  I5th,  finished  i6th  century)  ; 
Cahors  C,  rebuilt  1285-93  (W.  front  isth  century)  ;  Orleans,  1287- 
1328  (burned,  rebuilt  1601-1829). — 141)1  century:  St.  Bertram!  de 
Comminges,  1304-50;  St.  Nazaire  at  Carcassonne,  choir  and  trans, 
on  Romanesque  nave;  Montpellier  C.,  1364;  St.  Ouen  at  Rouen, 
choir,  1318-39  (trans.,  1400-39;  nave,  1464-91;  W.  front,  1515); 
Royal  Chapel  at  Vincennes,  1385-1525. — I5th  and  i6th  century: 
St.  Nizier  at  Lyons  rebuilt;  St.  Severin,  St.  Merri,  St.  Ger- 
main 1'Auxerrois,  all  at  Paris;  Notre  Dame  de  1'Epine  at  Chalons- 
sur-Marne;  choir  of  St.  Etienne  at  Beauvais ;  Saintes  C.,  rebuilt, 
1450;  St.  Maclou  at  Rouen  (finished  i6th  century)  ;  church  at 
Bourg-en-Bresse ;  St.  Wulfrand  at  Abbeville ;  abbey  of  St.  Riquier 
— these  three  all  early  i6th  century. 

HOUSES,  CASTLES,  AND  PALACES  :  Bishop's  palace  at  Paris, 
1160  (demolished);  castle  of  Coucy,  1220-30;  Louvre  at  Paris 
(the  original  chateau),  1225-1350;  Palais  de  Justice  at  Paris, 
originally  the  royal  residence,  1225-1400;  Bishop's  palace  at  Laon, 
1245  (addition  to  Romanesque  hall)  ;  castle  Montargis,  I3th  century; 
castle  Pierrefonds,  late  I5th  century,  remodelled  1870;  Bishop's 
palace  at  Narbonne,  palace  of  Popes  at  Avignon — all  i4th 
century;  donjon  of  palace  at  Poitiers,  1395;  Pal.  de  Justice  (Salle 
de  la  Prevote,  Salle  des  Comtes),  Poitiers,  I2th-I5th  century;  Hotel 
des  Ambassadeurs  at  Dijon,  1420;  house  of  Jacques  Coeur  at 
Bourges,  1443;  Palace,  Dijon,  1467;  Ducal  palace  at  Nancy,  1476; 
Hotel  Cluny  at  Paris,  1490;  castle  of  Creil,  late  I5th  century,  fin- 
ished in  i6th ;  E.  wing  palace  of  Blois,  1498-1515,  for  Louis  XII.; 
Palais  de  Justice  at  Rouen,  1499-1508. 


CHAPTER    XVII. 

GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN    GREAT   BRITAIN. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED:  As  before,  Corroyer,  Parker,  Reber. 
Also,  Bell's  Series  of  Handbooks  of  English  Cathedrals.  Billings, 
The  Baronial  and  Ecclesiastical  Antiquities  of  Scotland.  Bond, 
Gothic  Architecture  in  England.  Brandon,  Analysis  0}  Gothic 
Architecture.  Britton,  Cathedral  Antiquities  0}  Great  Britain. 
Ditchfield,  The  Cathedrals  of  England.  Murray,  Handbooks  of 
the  English  Cathedrals.  Rickman,  An  Attempt  to  Discriminate 
the  Styles  of  English  Architecture.  Sharpe,  Architectural  Paral- 
lels; The  Seven  Periods  of  English  Architecture.  Van  Rensse- 
laer,  English  Cathedrals.  Winkles  and  Moule,  Cathedral 
Churches  of  England  and  Wales.  Willis,  Architectural  History 
of  Canterbury  Cathedral;  ditto,  of  Winchester  Cathedral;  Treatise 
on  Vaults. 

GENERAL  CHARACTER.  Gothic  architecture  was  developed  in 
England  under  a  strongly  established  royal  power,  with  an  epis- 
copate in  no  sense  hostile  to  the  abbots  or  in  arms  against  the 
barons.  Many  of  the  cathedrals  had  monastic  chapters,  and  not 
infrequently  abbots  were  invested  with  the  episcopal  rank. 
Under  Henry  VIII.  the  monasteries  were  suppressed,  and  the 
monastic  cathedrals  reconstituted  under  ''secular"  clergy, 
though  the  ex-abbot  was  sometimes  retained  as  bishop.  The 
other  cathedrals,  governed  originally  by  "secular"  or  non- 
monastic  clergy,  were  left  undisturbed,  and  are  known  as  of  the 
"old  foundation  ".* 

*  The  monastic  cathedrals  "  seculari/ed "  by  Henry  VIII.  arc 
often  railed  tile  "new  foundation."  Some  writers,  however,  prefer 
to  call  them  monastic  and  to  use  the  term  "new  foundation"  only 
for  cathedrals  established  since  Henry  VIII. 's  time. 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN   GREAT   BRITAIN.      223 


English  Gothic  architecture  was  thus  by  no  means  predom- 
inantly an  architecture  of  cathedrals.  If  architectural  activity  in 
England  was  on  this  account  less  intense  and  widespread  in  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  than  in  France,  it  was  not,  on  the 
other  hand,  so  soon  exhausted.  Fewer  new  cathedrals  were 
built,  but  the  progressive  rebuilding  of  those  already  existing 
seems  not  to  have  ceased  until  the  middle  or  end  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  Architecture  in  England  developed  more  slowly,  but 
more  uniformly,  than  in  France.  It  contented  itself  with  simpler 
problems;  and  if  it  failed  to  rival  Amiens  in  boldness  of  construc- 
tion and  in  lofty  majesty,  it  at  least  never  perpetrated  a  folly  like 
Beauvais.  In  richness  of  internal  dec- 
oration, especially  in  the  mouldings  and 
ribbed  vaulting,  and  in  the  picturesque 
grouping  of  simple  masses  externally, 
the  British  builders  went  far  toward 
atoning  for  their  structural  timidity. 

EARLY  GOTHIC  BUILDINGS.  The 
pointed  arch  and  ribbed  vault  were  im- 
portations from  France.  Early  ex- 
amples appear  in  the  Cistercian  abbeys 
of  Furness  and  Kirkstall,  and  in  the 
Temple  Church  at  London  (1185). 
But  it  was  in  the  Choir  of  Canter- 
bury, as  rebuilt  by  William  of  Sens, 
after  the  destruction  by  fire  in  1170  of 
Ernulph's  and  Conrad's  Norman  choir, 
that  these  French  Gothic  features  were 
first  applied  in  a  thoroughgoing  man- 
ner. In  plan  this  choir  resembled  that  of  the  cathedral  of 
Sens;  and  its  coupled  round  piers,  foliated  capitals,  pointed 
arches,  six-part  vaulting,  and  duvet,  were  distinctly  French. 
The  Gothic  details  thus  introduced  slowly  supplanted  the  round 
arch  and  other  Norman  features.  For  fifty  years  the  styles  were 


FIG.      I.VV PLAN!     OP     SALIS- 
BURY   CATUKDKAL. 


224  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

more  or  less  mingled  in  many  buildings,  though  Lincoln 
Cathedral,  as  rebuilt  in  1192-1200,  retained  nothing  of  the 
earlier  round-arched  style.  But  the  first  church  to  be  designed 
and  built  from  the  foundations  in  the  new  style  was  the  cathedral 
of  Salisbury  (1220-1258;  Fig.  133).  Contemporary  with 
Amiens,  it  is  a  homogeneous  and  typical  example  of  the  Early 
English  style.  The  predilection  for  great  length  observable  in 
the  Anglo-Norman  churches  (as  at  Norwich  and  Durham)  still 
prevailed,  as  it  continued  to  do  throughout  the  Gothic  period; 
Salisbury  is  480  feet  long.  The  double  transepts,  the  long  choir, 
the  square  east  end,  the  relatively  low  vault  (84  feet  to  the  ridge), 
the  narrow  grouped  windows,  all  are  thoroughly  English.  Only 
the  simple  four-part  vaulting  recalls  French  models.  West- 
minster Abbey  (1245-1269),*  on  the  other  hand,  betrays  in  a 
marked  manner  the  French  influence  in  its  internal  loftiness  (100 
feet),  its  polygonal  chcvet  and  chapels,  and  its  strongly  accented 
exterior  flying-buttresses  (Fig.  142). 

MIXTURE  OF  STYLES.  Very  few  English  cathedrals  arc  as 
homogeneous  as  the  two  just  mentioned,  nearly  all  having  under- 
gone repeated  remodellings  in  successive  periods.  Durham, 
Norwich,  and  Oxford  are  wholly  Norman  but  for  their  Gothic 
vaults.  Ely,  Rochester,  Gloucester,  and  Hereford  have  Norman 
naves  and  Gothic  choirs. f  Peterborough  has  an  early  Gothic 
facade  and  late  Gothic  retro-choir  added  to  an  otherwise  com- 
pletely Norman  structure.  Winchester  is  a  Norman  church  re- 
modelled with  early  Perpendicular  details.  The  purely  Gothic 
churches  and  cathedrals — -except  parish  churches,  in  which  Eng- 
land is  very  rich — are  not  nearly  as  numerous  in  England  as  in 
France. 

PERIODS.     The  development  of  English   Gothic  architecture 

*  The  western  part  of  the  nave  and  the  west  front  were  not  com- 
pleted until  1500. 

t  Mut  that  of  Gloucester  is  merely  a  rcclothing  of  the  Xornian 
choir  with  late  Gothic  details  and  vaulting. 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IX   GREAT   BRITAIN.      22$ 


followed  the  same  general  sequence  as  the  French,  and  like  it  the 
successive  stages  are  commonly  characterized  by  the  forms  of  the 
tracery. 

The  EARLY  ENGLISH  or  LANCET  period  extended  roundly  from 
1175  to  1260,  and  was  marked  by  simplicity,  dignity,  and  purity 
of  design. 

The  DECORATED  or  GEOMETRIC  period  covered  another  cen- 
tury,  1260  to   1360,  and   was 
characterized  by  its  decorative 
richness  and  greater  lightness 
of  construction. 

The  PERPENDICULAR  period 
extended  from  1360,  or  there- 
about, well  into  the  sixteenth 
century.  Its  salient  features 
were  the  use  of  fan-vaulting, 
four-centred  arches,  and  trac- 
ery of  predominantly  vertical 
and  horizontal  lines.  The 
tardy  introduction  of  Renais- 
sance forms  finally  put  an  end 
to  the  Gothic  style  in  Eng- 
land, after  a  long  period  of 
mixed  and  transitional  archi- 
tecture. 

VAULTING.  The  richness  and  variety  of  English  vaulting 
contrast  strikingly  with  the  persistent  uniformity  of  the  French. 
A  few  of  the  early  Gothic  vaults,  as  in  the  aisles  of  Peterborough, 
and  later  the  naves  of  ('hichesler,  Salisbury,  and  Gloucester, 
were  simple  four-part,  ribbed  vaults  substantially  like  the-  French. 
But  the  English  disliked  and  avoided  the  twisted  and  dome-like 
surfaces  of  the  French  vaults,  preferring  horizontal  ridges,  and,  in 
the  filling-masonry,  straight  courses  meeting  at  the  ridge  in  zig/ag 
lines,  as  in  southwest  France  (sec-  p.  20. \).  Tin's  may  be  seen  in 


—  KIHHKI)  V. \ri.TINc;,    CHOIR 
KXKTKK    C  VI  HKllKAl.. 


226 


HISTORY    OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


Westminster  Abbey.  The  idea  of  ribbed  construction  was  then 
seized  upon  and  given  a  new  application.  By  springing  a  large 
number  of  ribs  from  each  point  of  support,  the  vaulting-surfaces 
were  divided  into  long,  narrow  triangles,  the  filling  of  which  was 
comparatively  easy  (Fig.  134).  The  ridge  was  itself  furnished 
with  a  straight  rib,  decorated  with  carved  rosettes  or  bosses  at  each 
intersection  with  a  vaulting-rib.  The  naves  and  choirs  of  Lin- 
coln, Lichfield,  Exeter,  and  the  nave  of  Westminster  illustrate 


FIG.    135. NET    OR    LIEKNE   VAULTING,    TEWKESBURY    ABBKV. 

this  method.  The  logical  corollary  of  this  practice  was  the  intro- 
duction of  minor  ribs  called  licrncs,  connecting  the  main  ribs  and 
forming  complex  reticulated  and  star-shaped  patterns.  Vaults 
of  this  description  are  among  the  most  beautiful  in  England. 
One  of  the  richest  is  in  the  choir  of  Gloucester  (1337-1377)-  Less 
correct  construe-lively  is  that  over  the  choir  of  Wells,  while  the 
choir  of  Ely,  the  naves  of  Tewkesbury  Abbey  (Eig.  135),  and  of 
Canterbury  and  Winchester  cathedrals,  all  built  between  1360 
and  1400,  illustrate  the  same  system.  Such  vaults  are  called 
lirrnc  or  star  vaults.  The  furthest  possible  development  of  this 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN   GREAT   BRITAIN.      227 


type  is  seen  in  the  vaults  of  Norwich  Cathedral  (1463),  of  the  nave 
of  King's  College  Chapel,  Cambridge,  and  St.  George's  Chapel, 
Windsor. 

FAN-VAULTING.  The  later  steps  in  the  process  may  be  ob- 
served in  the  vaults  of  the  nave  of  Sherborne  church,  the  choir  of 
Oxford  Cathedral,  the  Divinity  School  at  Oxford,  the  retro-choir 
of  Peterborough,  the  cloisters  of  Gloucester,  and  many  other 
examples.  The  diverg- 
ing ribs  being  made  of 
uniform  curvature,  the 
severeys  (the  inverted 
pyramidal  vaulting- 
masses  springing  from 
each  support)  became 
a  species  of  concave 
conoids,  meeting  at  the 
ridge  in  such  a  way  as 
to  leave  a  series  of  flat 
lozenge-shaped  spaces 
at  the  summit  of  the 
vault  (Fig.  141).  The 
ribs  were  multiplied 
indefinitely,  and  losing 

thus  in  individual  and  structural  importance  became  a  mere 
decorative  pattern  of  tracery  on  the  severeys.  To  conceal  the 
awkward  flat  lozenges  at  the  ridge,  elaborate  panelling  was  re- 
sorted to;  or,  in  some  cases,  long  stone  pendants  were  inserted 
at  those  points — a  device  highly  decorative  but  wholly  uncon- 
structive.  At  Cambridge,  in  the  choir  of  King's  College  Chapel, 
and  in  the  Chapel  of  Henry  VII.  (Fig.  141),  at  Westminster, 
this  sort  of  vaulting  received  its  most  elaborate  development. 
The  Jan-vault,  as  it  is  called,  illustrates  the  logical  evolution  of 
a  decorative  element  from  a  structural  starting-point,  leading 
to  results  far  removed  from  the  original  conception.  Rich  and 


FIG.    136. VAULT    OF    CHAPTER-] 


228  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

sumptuous  as  are  these  ceilings,  they  are  with  all  their  ornament 
less  satisfactory  than  the  ribbed  vaults  of  the  preceding  period. 

CHAPTER-HOUSES.  One  of  the  most  beautiful  forms  of 
ribbed  vaulting  was  developed  in  the  polygonal  halls  erected  for 
the  deliberations  of  the  cathedral  chapters  of  Lincoln  (1225), 
Westminster  (1250),  Salisbury  (1250),  and  Wells  (1292),  in  which 
the  vault-ribs  radiated  from  a  central  column  to  the  sides  and 
angles  of  the  polygon  (Fig.  136).  If  these  vaults  were  less  majes- 
tic than  domes  of  the  same  diameter,  they  were  far  more  decora- 
tive and  picturesque,  while  the  chapter-houses  themselves  were 
the  most  original  and  striking  products  of  English  Gothic  art. 
Every  feature  was  designed  with  strict  regard  for  the  structural 
system  determined  by  the  admirable  vaulting,  and  the  Sainte 
Chapelle  was  not  more  logical  in  its  exemplification  of  Gothic 
principles.  To  the  four  above-mentioned  examples  should  be 
added  that  of  York  (1280-1330),  which  differs  from  them  in  hav- 
ing no  central  column:  by  some  critics  it  is  esteemed  the  finest  of 
them  all.  Its  ceiling  is  a  Gothic  dome,  57  feet  in  diameter,  but 
unfortunately  executed  in  wood.  Its  geometrical  window-tracery 
and  richly  canopied  stalls  are  admiral >le. 

OCTAGON  AT  ELY.  The  magnificent  Octagon  of  Ely  Cathe- 
dral, at  the  intersection  of  the  nave  and  transepts,  belongs  in  the 
same  category  with  these  polygonal  chapter-house  vaults.  It  was 
built  by  Alan  of  \Valsingham  in  1337,  after  the  fall  of  the  central 
tower  and  the  destruction  of  the  adjacent  bays  of  the  choir.  It 
occupies  the  full  width  of  the  three  aisles,  and  covers  the  ample 
space  thus  enclosed  with  a  simple  but  beautiful  groined  and  ribbed 
vault  of  wood  reaching  to  a  central  octagonal  lantern,  which 
rises  much  higher  and  shows  externally  as  well  as  internally. 
Unfortunately,  this  vault  is  of  wood,  and  would  require  important 
modifications  of  detail  if  carried  out  in  stone.  But  it  is  so  noble 
in  general  design  and  total  effect,  that  one  wonders  the  type  was 
not  universally  adopted  for  the  crossing  in  all  cathedrals,  until 
one  observes  that  no  cathedral  of  importance  was  built  after 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE   IN   GREAT   BRITAIN.      22Q 

Walsingham's  time,  nor  did  any  other  central  towers  opportunely 
fall  to  the  ground. 

WINDOWS  AND  TRACERY.  In  the  Early  English  Period 
(1200-1280  or  1300)  the  windows  were  at  first  tall  and  narrow 
(lancet  windows),  and  generally  grouped  by  twos  and  threes, 
though  sometimes  four'and  even  five  are  seen  together  (as  the 
"  Five  Sisters  "  in  the  N.  transept  of  York).  In  the  nave  of  Salis- 
bury and  the  retro-choir  of  Ely  the  side  aisles  are  lighted  by 
coupled  windows  and  the  clearstory  by 
triple  windows,  the  central  one  higher 
than  the  others — a  surviving  Norman 
practice.  Plate-tracery  was,  as  in 
France,  an  intermediate  step  leading  to 
the  development  of  bar-tracery  (see  Fig. 
113).  The  English  followed  here  the 
same  reasoning  as  the  French.  At  first 
the  openings  constituted  the  design,  the 
intervening  stonework  being  of  second- 
ary importance.  Later  the  forms  of 
the  openings  were  subordinated  to  the 
pattern  of  the  stone  framework  of  bars, 
arches,  circles,  and  cusps.  Bar-tracery 
of  this  description  prevailed  in  England 

through  the  greater  part  of  the  Decorated  Period  (1280-1380), 
and  somewhat  resembled  the  contemporary  French  geometric 
tracery,  though  more  varied  and  less  rigidly'  constructive  in  de- 
sign. An  early  example  of  this  tracery  occurs  in  the  cloisters  of 
Salisbury  (1280;  Fig.  137);  others  in  the  clearstories  of  the  choirs 
of  Lichfield,  Lincoln,  and  Ely,  the  nave  of  York,  and  the  chapter- 
houses mentioned  above,  where,  indeed,  it  seems  to  have  received 
its  earliest  development.  After  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth 
century  lines  of  double  curvature  were  introduced,  producing 
what  is  called  flowing  tracery,  somewhat  resembling  the  French 
flamboyant,  though  simpler  (Fig.  114).  Examples  of  this  style 


FIG.  137. CLOISTERS,  SALIS- 
BURY CATHEDRAL  (SHOWING 
UPPER  PART  OF  CHAPTER- 
HOUSE). 


230 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


are  found  in  Wells,  in  the  side  aisles  and  triforium  of  the  choir  of 
Ely,  and  in  the  S.  transept  rose-window  of  Lincoln. 

THE  PERPENDICULAR  STYLE.  Flowing  tracery  was,  how- 
ever, a  transitional  phase  of  design,  and  was  soon  superseded  by 
Perpendicular  tracery,  in  which  the  mullions  were  carried  through 
to  the  top  of  the  arch  and  intersected  by  horizontal  transoms. 

This  formed  a  very  rigid 
and  mechanically  correct 
system  of  stone  framing, 
but  lacked  the  grace  and 
charm  of  the  two  preced- 
ing periods.  The  earliest 
examples  are  seen  in  the 
work  of  Edington  and  of 
Wykeham  in  the  recon- 
structed cathedral  of 
Winchester  (1360-1394), 
where  the  tracery  was 
thus  made  to  harmonize 
with  the  accentuated  and 
multiplied  vertical  lines 
of  the  interior  design.  It 
was  at  this  late  date  that 
the  English  seem  first  to 
have  fully  appropriated 
the  Gothic  ideas  of  em- 
phasized vertical  ele- 
ments and  wall  surfaces  reduced  to  a  minimum.  The  develop- 
ment of  fan-vaulting  had  led  to  the  adoption  of  a  new  form  of 
arch,  the  four-centred  or  Tudor  arch  (Fig.  138),  to  fit  under  the 
depressed  apex  of  the  vault.  The  whole  design  internally  and 
externally  was  thenceforward  controlled  by  the  form  of  the  vault- 
ing and  of  the  openings.  The  windows  were  made  of  enormous 
size,  especially  at  the  east  end  of  the  choir,  which  was  square  in 


PIG.  138. PERPENDICULAR  TRACERY,  WEST 

WINDOW  OP  ST.  GEORGE'S,  WINDSOR. 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE   IN   GREAT   BRITAIN.      231 

nearly  all  English  churches,  and  in  the  west  windows  over  the 
entrance.  These  windows  had  already  reached,  in  the  Decor- 
ated Period,  an  enormous  size,  as  at  York;  in  the  Perpendicular 
Period  the  two  ends  of  the  church  were  as  nearly  as  possible  con- 
verted into  walls  of  glass.  The  East  Window  of  Gloucester 
reaches  the  prodigious  dimensions  of  38  by  72  feet.  The  most 
complete  examples  of  the  Perpendicular  tracery  and  of  the  style 
in  general  are  the  three  chapels  already  mentioned  (p.  227); 
those,  namely,  of  King's  College  at  Cambridge,  of  St.  George 
at  Windsor,  and  of  Henry  VII.  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

CONSTRUCTIVE  DESIGN.  The  most  striking  peculiarity  of 
English  Gothic  design  was  its  studious  avoidance  of  temerity  or 
venturesomeness  in  construction.  Both  the  height  and  width  of 
the  nave  were  kept  within  very  moderate  bounds,  and  the  supports 
were  never  reduced  to  extreme  slenderness.  While  much  im- 
pressiveness  of  effect  was  undoubtedly  lost  thereby,  there  was 
some  gain  in  freedom  of  design,  and  there  was  less  obtrusion  of 
constructive  elements  in  the  exterior  composition.  The  flying- 
buttress  became  a  feature  of  minor  importance  where  the  clear- 
story was  kept  low,  as  in  most  English  churches.  In  many  cases 
the  flying  arches  were  hidden  under  the  aisle  roofs.  The  English 
cathedrals  and  larger  churches  are  long  and  low,  depending  for 
effect  mainly  upon  the  projecting  masses  of  their  transepts,  the 
imposing  square  central  towers  which  commonly  crown  the  cross- 
ing, and  the  grouping  of  the  main  structure  with  chapter-houses, 
cloisters,  and  Lady-chapels. 

FRONTS.  The  sides  and  east  ends  were,  in  most  cases,  more 
successful  than  the  west  fronts.  In  these  the  English  displayed  a 
singular  indifference  or  lack  of  creative  power.  They  produced 
nothing  to  rival  the  majestic  facades  of  Notre  Dame,  Amiens,  or 
Reims,  and  their  portals  are  almost  ridiculously  small.  The 
front  of  York  Cathedral  is  the  most  notable  in  the  list  for  its  size 
and  clalx)rate  decoration.  Those  of  Lincoln  and  Peterbo- 
rough are,  however,  more  interesting  in  the  picturesqueness  and 


232 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


singularity  of  their  composition.  The  first-named  forms  a  vast 
arcaded  screen,  masking  the  bases  of  the  two  western  towers,  and 
pierced  by  three  huge  Norman  arches,  retained  from  the  original 
facade.  The  west  front  of  Peterborough  is  likewise  a  mask  or 
screen,  mainly  composed  of  three  colossal  recessed  arches,  whose 

vast  scale  completely 
dwarfs  the  little  porches 
which  give  admittance  to 
the  church.  Salisbury 
has  a  curiously  illogical 
and  ineffective  facade. 
Those  of  Lichfield  and 
Wells  are,  on  the  other 
hand,  imposing  and  beau- 
tiful designs,  the  first  with 
its  twin  spires  and  rich 
arcading  (Fig.  139),  the 
second  with  its  unusual 
wealth  of  figure-sculp- 
ture, and  massive  square 
towers. 

CENTRAL  TOWERS. 
These  are  the  most  suc- 
cessful features  of  Eng- 
lish exterior  design.  Most  of  them  form  lanterns  internally 
over  the  crossing,  giving  to  that  point  a  considerable  increase 
of  dignity.  Externally  they  are  usually  massive  and  lofty  square 
towers,  and  having  been  for  the  most  part  completed  during  the 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  they  arc  marked  by  great  rich- 
ness and  elegance  of  detail.  Durham,  York,  Ely,  Canterbury, 
Lincoln,  and  Gloucester  may  be  mentioned  as  notable  examples 
of  such  square  towers;  that  of  Canterbury  is  the  finest.  Two  or 
three  have  lofty  spires  over  the  lantern.  Among  these,  that  of 
Salisbury  is  chief,  rising  424  feet  from  the  ground,  admirably 


FIG.    139. WEST    FRONT,    LICHFIELD 

CATHEDRAL. 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IX   GRKAT   15RITAIN.      233 


designed  in  every  detail.  It  was  not  completed  till  the  middle  of 
the  fourteenth  century,  but  most  fortunately  carries  out  with 
great  felicity  the  spirit  of  the  earlier  style  in  which  it  was  begun. 
Lichfield  and  Chichester  have  somewhat  similar  central  spires, 
but  less  happy  in  proportion  and 
detail  than  the  beautiful  Salisbury 
example. 

INTERIOR  DESIGN.  In  the  Nor- 
man churches  the  pier-arches,  tri- 
forium,  and  clearstory  were  practi- 
cally equal.  In  the  Gothic  churches 
the  pier-arches  generally  occupy 
the  lower  half  of  the  height,  the 
upper  half  being  divided  nearly 
equally  between  the  triforium  and 
clearstory,  as  in  Lincoln,  Lichfield 
(nave),  Ely  (choir).  In  some  cases, 
however  (as  at  Salisbury,  West- 
minster, Winchester,  choir  of  Lich- 
field), the  clearstory  is  magnified 
at  the  expense  of  the  triforium 
(Fig.  140).  Three  peculiarities  of 
design  sharply  distinguish  the  Eng- 
lish treatment  of  these  features 
from  the  French.  The  first  is 
the  multiplicity  of  fine  mouldings 

in  the  pier-arches;  the  second  is  the  decorative  elaboration  of 
design  in  the  triforium;  the  third,  the  variety  in  the  treatment  of 
the  clearstory.  In  general  the  English  interiors  arc-  much  more 
ornate  than  the  French.  Black  Purbeck  marble  is  frequently 
used  for  the  shafts  clustered  around  the  central  core  of  the  pier, 
giving  a  striking  and  somewhat  singular  effect  of  contrasted  color. 
The  rich  vaulting,  the  highly  decorated  triforium,  the  moulded 
pier-arches,  and  at  the  end  of  the  vista  the  great  east  window, 


FIT..     140. ONE    HAY    OF    CHOIR, 

LICHF1KI.I)    CATHKDKAI.. 


234  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

produce  an  impression  very  different  from  the  more  simple  and 
lofty  stateliness  of  the  French  cathedrals.  The  great  length  and 
lowness  of  the  English  interiors  combine  with  this  decorative 
richness  to  give  the  impression  of  repose  and  grace,  rather  than 
of  majesty  and  power.  This  tendency  reached  its  highest  expres- 
sion in  the  Perpendicular  churches  and  chapels,  in  which  every 
surface  was  covered  with  minute  panelling. 

CARVING.  In  the  Early  English  Period  the  details  were 
carved  with  remarkable  vigor.  In  the  capitals  and  corbels, 
crockets  and  finials,  the  foliage  was  crisp  and  fine,  curling  into 
convex  masses  and  seeming  to  spring  from  the  surface  which  it 
decorated.  Mouldings  were  frequently  ornamented  in  the  hol- 
lows with  foliage  of  this  character,  or  with  the  dog-tooth  ornament 
or  the  ball-flower,  introducing  repeated  points  of  light  into  the 
shadows  of  the  mouldings.  These  were  fine  and  complex,  deep 
hollows  alternating  with  round  mouldings  (bowlels)  sometimes 
made  pear-shaped  in  section  by  a  fillet  on  one  side.  Cusping — 
the  decoration  of  an  arch  or  circle  by  triangular  projections  on  its 
inner  edge — was  introduced  during  this  period,  and  became  an 
important  decorative  resource,  especially  in  tracery  design.  In 
the  Decorated  Period  the  foliage  was  less  crisp  though  sometimes 
treated  with  extraordinary  realism;  sea-weed  and  oak-leaves, 
closely  and  confusedly  bunched,  were  often  used  in  the  capitals, 
while  crockets  were  larger,  double-curved,  with  leaves  swelling 
into  convexities  like  oak-galls.  Geometrical  and  flowing  tracery 
were  developed,  double  curves  began  to  be  used  in  the  profiles  of 
mouldings,  and  the  hollows  were  less  frequently  adorned  with 
foliage. 

In  the  Perpendicular  Period  nearly  all  Hat  surfaces  were  pan- 
elled in  designs  resembling  the  tracery  of  the  windows.  The  cap- 
itals were  less  important  than  those  of  the  ] (receding  periods,  and 
the  mouldings  weaker  and  less  effective.  The  Tudor  rose  ap- 
pears as  an  ornament  in  square  panels  and  on  Hal  surfaces;  and 
moulded  battlements,  which  first  appeared  in  Decorated  work, 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN   GREAT  BRITAIN.      235 

now  become  a  frequent  crowning  motive  in  place  of  a  cornice. 
There  is  less  originality  and  variety  in  the  ornament,  but  a  great 
increase  in  its  amount  (Fig.  141). 

PLANS.  English  church  plans  underwent,  during  the  Gothic 
Period,  but  little  change  from  the  general  types  established  pre- 
vious to  the  thirteenth  century.  The  Gothic  cathedrals  and 
abbeys,  like  the  Norman,  were  very  long  and  narrow,  with  choirs 
often  nearly  as  long  as  the  nave,  and  almost  invariably  with  square 


FIG.    141. — FAN    VAULTING,    HENRY   VII. 'S    CHAPEL,    WESTMINSTER    ABBEY. 

eastward  terminations.  There  is  no  example  of  double  side 
aisles  and  side  chapels,  and  apsidal  chapels  are  very  rare.  Can- 
terbury and  Westminster  (Fig.  142)  are  the  chief  exceptions  to 
this,  and  both  show  clearly  the  French  influence.  Another  strik- 
ing peculiarity  of  the  English  plans  is  the  frequent  occurrence  of 
secondary  transepts,  adding  greatly  to  the  external  picturesque- 
ness.  These  occur  in  rudimentary  form  in  Canterbury,  and  at 
Durham  the  Chapel  of  the  Nine  Altars,  added  1242-1290  to  the 
eastern  end,  forms  in  reality  a  secondary  transept.  This  feature 
is  most  perfectly  developed  in  the  cathedral  of  Salisbury  (Fig. 


236 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


132),  and  appears  also  at  Lincoln,  Worcester,  Wells,  and  Here- 
ford. The  English  cathedral  plans  are  also  distinguished  by  the 
retention  or  incorporation  of  many  conventual  features,  such  as 
cloisters,  libraries,  and  halls,  and  by  the  grouping  of  chapter- 
houses and  Lady-chapels 
with  the  main  edifice. 
Thus  the  English  cathe- 
dral plans  and  those  of 
the  great  abbey  churches 
present  a  marked  con- 
trast with  those  of  France 
and  the  Continent  gener- 
ally. \Vhile  Amiens,  the 
greatest  of  French  cathe- 
drals, is  521  feet  long, 
and  internally  140  feet 
high,  Ely  measures  565 
feet  in  length,  and  less 
than  75  feet  in  height. 
Notre  Dame  is  148  feet 
wide;  the  English  naves 
are  usually  under  80  feet 
in  total  width  of  the  three 
aisles.  No  cathedrals 

FIC,.    142.— EASTERN    HALF    OP   WESTMINSTER  .        .  ,,  ,        -,. 

were  originally   built 

a.  Henry  VII :S  chapel,  with    flVC    aisles.       There 

are,  however,  a  number 

of  parish  churches  with  five  aisles,  and  one  of  these,  at  Man- 
chester, has  in  modern  times  been  converted  into  the  cathedral 
of  a  newly-partitioned  diocese.  The  present  exterior  side  aisles 
of  Chichester  were  formed  from  the  original  side-chapels  of 
the  nave. 

PARISH    CHURCHES.       Many  of    these   were  of  exceptional 
beauty  of  composition  and  detail.     They  display  the  greatest 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN   GREAT   BRITAIN.      237 

variety  of  plan,  churches  with  two  equal-gabled  naves  side  by 
side  being  not  uncommon.  A  considerable  proportion  of  them 
date  from  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  and  are  chiefly 
interesting  for  their  square,  single,  west  towers  and  their  carved 
wooden  ceilings  (see  below).  The  tower  was  usually  built  over 
the  central  western  porch;  broad  and  square,  with  corner  but- 
tresses terminating  in  pinnacles,  it  was  usually  finished  without 
spires.  Crenelated  battlements  crowned  the  upper  story. 
Among  notable  square  towers  are  those  of  Boston  and  St. 
Nicholas,  Newcastle.  Important  parish  churches  are  St.  Mi- 
chael's, Coventry;  St.  Mary's  Redcliffe,  at  Bristol ;  St.  Stephen's, 
Norwich,  and  many  others. 

SPIRES.  When  spires  were  added  to  the  west  towers,  the 
transition  from  the  square  tower  to  the  octagonal  spire  was  ef- 
fected by  broaches  or  portions  of  a  square  pyramid  intersecting 
the  base  of  the  spire,  or  by  corner  pinnacles  and  flying-buttresses. 
The  spires  of  the  more  important  parish  churches  are  often  of 
exceptional  beauty,  and  constitute  a  notably  successful  element  in 
English  mediaeval  architecture.  Even  the  simpler  broach-spires 
like  Frampton  or  Ewerby  are  strikingly  effective,  while  the  more 
elaborate  spires  of  later  date,  such  as  Louth,  Patrington  or  St. 
Michael's,  Coventry,  are  architectural  works  of  the  first  order. 
The  most  perfect  of  all  English  spires  is,  however,  that  of  Salis- 
bury Cathedral. 

WOODEN  CEILINGS.  The  English  treated  woodwork  with 
consummate  skill.  They  invented  and  developed  a  variety  of 
forms  of  roof-truss  in  which  the  proper  distribution  of  the  strains 
was  combined  with  a  highly  decorative  treatment  of  the  several 
parts  by  carving,  moulding,  and  arcading.  The  ceiling  surfaces 
between  the  trusses  were  handled  decoratively,  and  the  oaken 
open-timber  ceilings  of  many  of  the  English  churches  and  civic 
or  academic  halls  (Christ  Church  Hall,  Oxford;  Westminster 
Hall,  London)  are  such  noble  and  beautiful  works  as  quite  to 
justify  the  substitution  of  wooden  for  vaulted  ceilings  (Fig.  143). 


238 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


The  hammer-beam  truss  was  in  its  way  as  highly  scientific,  and 
aesthetically  as  satisfactory,  as  any  feature  of  French  Gothic  stone 
construction.  Without  the  use  of  tie-rods  to  keep  the  rafters 
from  spreading,  it  brought  the  strain  of  the  roof  upon  internal 
brackets  low  down  on  the  wall,  and  produced  a  beautiful  effect  by 
the  repetition  of  its  graceful  curves  in  each  truss.  The  ceilings 

of  the  parish  churches 
of  Wymondham, 
Trunch,  March,  St. 
Stephen's,  Norwich, 
and  the  Middle  Temple 
Hall,  London,  are  fine 
examples  of  this  branch 
of  English  design. 

CHAPELS  AND 
HALLS.  Many  of 
these  rival  the  cathe- 
drals in  beauty  and 
dignity  of  design.  The 
royal  chapels  at  Wind- 
sor and  Westminster 
have  already  been 
mentioned,  as  well  as 

King's  College  Chapel  at  Cambridge,  and  Christ  Church  Hall 
at  Oxford.  To  these  college  halls  should  be  added  the  chapel 
of  Merton  College  at  Oxford,  and  the  beautiful  chapel  of  St. 
Stephen  at  Westminster,  most  unfortunately  demolished  when 
the  present  Parliament  House  was  erected.  The  Lady-chapels 
of  Gloucester  and  Ely,  though  connected  with  the  cathedrals,  are 
really  independent  designs  of  late  date,  and  remarkable  for  the 
richness  of  their  decoration,  their  great  windows,  and  elab- 
orate ribbed  vaulting.  Some  of  the  halls  in  mediaeval  castles 
and  manor-houses  are  also  worthy  of  note,  especially  for  their 
timber  ceilings. 


FIG.    1.43. ROOF     OP     NAVE,    ST.    MARY'S,    WESTON- 

ZOYLAND. 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN   GREAT   BRITAIN.      239 

MINOR  MONUMENTS.  The  student  of  Gothic  architecture 
should  also  give  attention  to  the  choir-screens,  tombs,  and  chan- 
tries which  embellish  many  of  the  abbeys  and  cathedrals.  The 
rood-screen  at  York  is  a  notable  example  of  the  first;  the  tomb  of 
De  Gray  in  the  same  cathedral,  and  tombs  and  chantries  in  Can- 
terbury, Winchester,  Westminster  Abbey,  Ely,  St.  Alban's  Abbey, 
and  other  churches  are  deservedly  admired.  In  these  the  English 
love  for  ornament,  for  minute  carving,  and  for  the  contrast  of 
white  and  colored  marble,  found  unrestrained  expression.  To 
these  should  be  added  the  market-crosses  of  Salisbury  and  Win- 
chester, and  Queen  Eleanor's  Cross  at  Waltham. 

DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE.  The  mediaeval  castles  of  Great 
Britain  belong  to  the  domain  of  military  engineering  rather  than 
of  the  history  of  art,  though  occasionally  presenting  to  view  details 
of  considerable  architectural  beauty.  The  growth  of  peace  and 
civic  order  is  marked  by  the  erection  of  manor-houses,  the  resi- 
dences of  wealthy  landowners.  Some  of  these  houses  are  of  im- 
posing size,  and  show  the  application  to  domestic  requirements, 
of  the  late  Gothic  style  which  prevailed  in  the  period  to  which 
most  of  them  belong.  The  windows  are  square  or  Tudor- 
arched,  with  stone  mullions  and  transoms  of  the  Perpendicular 
style,  and  the  walls  terminate  in  merlons  or  crenelated  parapets, 
recalling  the  earlier  military  structures.  The  palace  of  the 
bishop  or  archbishop,  adjoining  the  cathedral,  and  the  residences 
of  the  dean,  canons,  and  clergy,  together  with  the  libraries, 
schools,  and  gates  of  the  cathedral  enclosure,  illustrate  other 
phases  of  secular  Gothic  work.  Few  of  these  structures  are  of 
striking  architectural  merit,  but  they  possess  a  picturesque 
charm  which  is  very  attractive. 

Not  many  stone  houses  of  the  smaller  class  remain  from  the 
Gothic  period  in  England.  But  there  is  hardly  an  old  town  that 
does  not  retain  many  of  the  half-timbered  dwellings  of  the  fif- 
teenth or  even  fourteenth  century,  some  of  them  in  excellent 
preservation.  They  are  for  the  most  part  wider  and  lower  than 


240  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

the  French  houses  of  the  same  class,  but  are  built  on  the  same 
principle,  and,  like  them,  the  woodwork  is  more  or  less  richly 
carved. 

MONUMENTS:  (A.  =  abbey  church;  C.  =  cathedral ;  r.  =  ruined; 
trans.  =  transept ;  each  monument  is  given  under  the  date  of  the 
earliest  extant  Gothic  work  upon  it,  with  additions  of  later  periods 
in  parentheses.) 

EARLY  ENGLISH:  Kirkstall  A.,  1152-82,  first  pointed  arches;  Can- 
terbury C,  choir,  1175-84  (nave,  1378-1411;  central  tower,  1500); 
Wells  C.,  1 190-1206  ( W.  front  1225,  choir  later,  chapter-h.  1292-1319)  ; 
Lincoln  C.,  choir,  trans.,  1192-1200  (vault  1250;  nave  and  E.  end 
1260-80);  Lichfield  C,  1200-50  (W.  front  1275;  presbytery  1325); 
Rochester  C.,  choir  and  trans.,  1200-39  (nave  Norman)  ; 
Worcester  C,  choir  1203-18,  nave  partly  Norman  (W.  end  1375- 
95)  ;  Chichester  C,  1204-44  (spire  rebuilt  I7th  century)  ;  Fountains 
A.,  1205-46;  Salisbury  C.,  1220-58  (cloister,  chapter-h.  1263-84;  spire 
1331)  ;  Elgin  C.,  1224-44;  Beverley  A.,  choir,  trans.  1225-1245  (nave 
1320-50;  W.  front  1380-1430);  York  C.,  S.  trans.  1225;  N.  trans. 
1260  (nave,  chapter-h.  1291-1345;  W.  window  1338;  central  tower 
1389-1407;  E.  window  1407);  Southwell  Minster,  1233-94  (nave 
Norman)  ;  Ripon  C.,  1233-94  (central  tower  1459)  ;  Ely  C.,  choir 
1229-54  (nave  Norman;  octagon  and  presbytery  1323-62);  Peter- 
borough C.,  W.  front  1237  (nave  Norman;  retro-choir,  late  I4th 
century);  Netley  A.,  1239  (r.)  ;  Durham  C.,  "Nine  Altars"  and 
E.  end  choir,  1235-90  (nave,  choir,  Norman;  W.  window  1341; 
central  tower  finished  1480);  Glasgow  C.  (with  remarkable  Early 
English  crypt),  1242-77;  Gloucester  C.,  nave  vaulted  1239-42  (nave 
mainly  Norman;  choir  1337-51;  cloisters  1375-1412;  W.  end  1420- 
37;  central  tower  1450-57);  Westminster  A.,  1245-69;  nave  1350- 
1422;  St.  Mary's  A.,  York,  1272-92  (r.). 

DECORATKD:  Merton  College  Chapel,  Oxford,  1274-1300;  Here- 
ford C.,  N.  trans.,  chapter-h.,  cloisters,  vaulting,  1275-92  (nave, 
choir,  Norman)  ;  Exeter  C.,  choir,  trans.,  1279-91  ;  nave  1331-50  (  E. 
end  remodelled  1390)  ;  Lichlield  C.,  Lady-chapel  1310;  Ely  C.,  Lady- 
chapel,  1321-49;  Melrose  A.,  1327-0)9  (nave  1500;  r. )  ;  St.  Stephen's 
chapel,  Westminster  1349-64  (demolished);  Edington  church,  1352- 
6t  ;  Carlisle  C,  E.  end  and  upper  parts  1352-95  (nave  in  part  and  S. 
trans.  Norman;  tower  finished  1419);  Winchester  C.,  \Y.  end  re- 
modelled 1360-66  (nave  and  aisles  1394-1410;  trans,  partly  Nor- 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  IN   GREAT  BRITAIN.     241 

man);  York  C.,  Lady-chapel  1362-72;  churches  of  Patrington  and 
Hull,  late  i-jth  century;  St.  Mary's  RedclifTe  at  Bristol,  1292-1460. 

PERPENDICULAR:  Winchester  C.,  nave  1371-1460;  Canterbury  C., 
nave  1379-1400;  cloister  1397-1412;  Holy  Cross  Church,  Canter- 
bury, 1380;  St.  Mary's  Warwick,  1381-91;  Manchester  C., 
1422;  St.  Mary's,  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  1424-33;  Sherborne, 
choir  1436  (nave  1475-1504)  ;  Beauchamp  Chapel,  Warwick, 
1439;  King's  College  Chapel,  Cambridge,  1446;  vaults  1508- 
15;  Roslyn  Chapel,  Edinburgh,  1446-90;  Gloucester  C.,  Lady-chapel. 
1 -457-98;  St.  Mary's,  Stratford-on-Avon,  1465-91;  Norwich  C.,  up- 
per part  and  E.  end  of  choir,  1472-99  (the  rest  mainly  Norman)  ; 
St.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor,  1481-1508;  choir  vaulted,  1507-20; 
Bath  A.,  1500-39;  Chapel  of  Henry  VII.,  Westminster,  1503-20; 
Central  towers  of  York,  Lincoln,  Gloucester,  Durham,  Canterbury 
and  Bristol  C. ;  Churches  of  S.  Nicholas,  Lynn,  St.  Michael's, 
Coventry,  Boston,  Louth,  Malvern  Priory  and  many  others. 

ACADEMIC  AND  SECULAR  BUILDINGS:  Winchester  Castle  Hall, 
1222-35;  Merton  College  Chapel,  Oxford,  1274-1300;  Library  Mer- 
ton  College,  1354-78;  Norborough  Hall,  1356;  Windsor  Castle, 
upper  ward,  1359-73 ;  Winchester  College,  1387-93 ;  Wardour  Castle, 
1392;  Westminster  Hall,  rebuilt,  1397-99;  St.  Mary's  Hall,  Coventry, 
1401-14;  \Varkworth  Castle,  1440;  St.  John's  College,  All  Souls' 
College,  Oxford,  1437;  Eton  College,  1441-1522;  Divinity  Schools, 
Oxford,  1445-54;  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  1475-80,  tower,  1500; 
Christ  Church  Hall,  Oxford,  1529. 


CHAPTER   XVIII. 

GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE    IN    GERMANY,    THE    NETH- 
ERLANDS,  AND    SPAIN. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED:  As  before,  Corroyer,  Reber.  Also, 
Adler,  M  ittelalterliche  Backstein-Bauwerke  des  preussischen 
Staates.  Essenwein  (Hdbuch.  d.  Arch.),  Die  romanische  imd  die 
gothische  Baukunst ;  der  Wohnbau.  Foerster,  Dcnkmdler 
deutscher  Baukunst.  Hasak,  Die  romanische  und  die  gothische 
Baukunst;  Kirchenbau;  Einzelheiten  dcs  Kirchenbaues  (both 
in  Hdbuch.  d.  Arch.]  Hase  and  others,  Die  mittelalterlichen 
Baudenkmdler  Niedersachsens.  Kallenbach,  Chronologic  der 
deutschen  mittelalterlichen  Baukunst.  Llibke,  Ecclesiastical  Art 
in  Germany  during  the  Middle  Ages.  Piferrer  and  Pi  y  Margall, 
Espana,  sus  monumentos  y  artes.  Redtenbacher,  Leitjaden  zum 
Studium  der  mittelalterlichen  Baukunst.  Street,  Gothic  Architec- 
ture in  Spain.  Uhde,  Baudenkmdler  in  Spanien.  Ungewitter, 
Lehrbuch  der  gothischen  Constructionen.  Villa  Amil,  Hispanm 
Artistica  y  Monumental.  Watson,  Portuguese  Architecture. 

EARLY  GOTHIC  WORKS.  The  Gothic  architecture  of  Ger- 
many is  less  interesting  to  the  general  student  than  that  of  France 
and  England  not  only  because  its  development  was  less  system- 
atic and  more  provincial,  but  also  because  it  produced  fewer 
works  of  high  intrinsic  merit.  The  introduction  into  Germany 
of  the  pointed  style  was  tardy,  and  its  progress  slow.  Roman- 
esque architecture  had  created  imposing  types  of  ecclesiastical 
architecture,  which  the  conservative  Teutons  were  slow  to  aban- 
don. The  result  was  a  half-century  of  transition  and  a  mingling 
of  Romanesque  and  Gothic  forms.  St.  Castor,  at  Coblentz,  built 
as  late  as  1208,  is  wholly  Romanesque.  Even  when  the  pointed 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN   GERMANY.  243 

arch  and  vault  had  finally  come  into  general  use,  the  plan  and  the 
constructive  system  still  remained  predominantly  Romanesque. 
The  western  apse  and  short  sanctuary  of  the  earlier  plans  were 
retained.  There  was  no  triforium,  the  clearstory  was  insignifi- 
cant, and  the  whole  aspect  low  and  massive.  The  Germans 
avoided,  at  first,  as  did  the  English,  the  constructive  audacities 
and  difficulties  of  the  French  Gothic,  but  showed  less  of  invention 
and  grace  than  their  English  neighbors.  When,  however,  through 
the  influence  of  foreign  models,  especially  of  the  great  French 
cathedrals,  and  through  the  employment  of  foreign  architects, 
the  Gothic  styles  were  at  last  thoroughly  domesticated,  a  spirit  of 
ostentation  took  the  place  of  the  earlier  conservatism.  Technical 
cleverness,  exaggerated  ingenuity  of  detail,  and  constructive  tours 
de  force  characterize  most  of  the  German  Gothic  work  of  the  late 
fourteenth  and  of  the  fifteenth  century.  This  is  exemplified  in 
the  slender  mullions  of  Ulm,  the  lofty  and  complicated  spire  of 
Strasburg,  and  the  curious  traceries  of  churches  and  houses  in 
Nuremberg. 

PERIODS.  The  stages  of  German  mediaeval  architectural 
development  corresponded  in  sequence,  though  not  in  date,  with 
the  movement  elsewhere.  The  maturing  of  the  true  Gothic 
styles  was  preceded  by  more  than  a  half-century  of  transition. 
Chronologically  the  periods*  may  be  broadly  stated  as  follows: 

The  TRANSITIONAL,  1170-1225. 

The  EARLY  POINTED,  1225-1275. 

The  MIDDLE  OR  DECORATED,  1275-1350. 

The  FLORID,  1350-1530. 

These  divisions  are,  however,  far  less  clearly  defined  than  in 
France  and  England.  The  development  of  forms  was  less  logical 
and  consequential,  and  less  uniform  in  the  different  provinces, 
than  in  those  western  lands. 

CONSTRUCTION.  As  already  remarked,  a  tenacious  hold  of 
Romanesque  methods  is  observable  in  many  German  Gothic 
*  See  ante,  p.  197. 


244 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


monuments.  Broad  wall-surfaces  with  small  windows  and  a 
general  massiveness  and  lowness  of  proportions  were  long  pre- 
ferred to  the  more  slender  and  lofty  forms  of  true  Gothic  design. 
Square  vaulting-bays  were  persistently  adhered  to,  covering  two 

aisle-bays.  The  six-part  system 
was  only  rarely  resorted  to,  as  at 
Schlettstadt,  and  in  St.  George 
at  Limburg-on-the-Lahn  (Fig. 
144).  The  ribbed  vault  was  an 
imported  idea,  and  was  never 
systematically  developed.  Under 
the  final  dominance  of  French 
models  in  the  second  half  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  vaulting  in 
oblong  bays  became  more  gen- 
eral, powerfully  influenced  by 
buildings  like  Freiburg,  Cologne, 
and  Ratisbon  Cathedrals,  and 
St.  Catherine  at  Oppenheim. 
In  the  fourteenth  century  the 
growing  taste  for  elaboration  and 
rich  detail  led  to  the  introduction 
of  multiplied  decorative  ribs, 
not,  as  in  England,  through  a 

logical  development  of  constructive  methods,  but  purely  as  dec- 
orative features.  Conspicuous  examples  of  its  application  are 
found  in  the  cathedrals  of  Freiburg,  Ulm,  Prague,  and  Vienna; 
in  St.  Barbara  at  Kuttenberg,  and  many  other  important  churches. 
But  with  all  the  richness  and  complexity  of  these  net-like  vaults 
the  Germans  developed  nothing  like  the  fan-vaulting  or  chapter- 
house ceilings  of  England. 

SIDE  AISLES.  A  notable  feature  of  many  German  churches 
is  the  raising  of  the  side-aisle  vaults  to  the  same  height  as  that  of 
the  central  aisle.  Thus  was  developed  a  distinctly  new  type,  to 


FIG.    144. ONE  BAY     OF    CATHEDRAL 

OF    ST.    GEORGE,    LIMBURG. 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN    GERMANY. 


245 


which  German  writers  have  given  the  name  of  hall-church.  The 
result  was  to  transform  completely  the  internal  perspective  of  the 
church  as  well  as  its  structural  membering.  The  clearstory  dis- 
appeared; the  central  aisle  no  longer  dominated  the  interior;  the 
pier-arches  and  side-walls  were  greatly  increased  in  height,  and 
flying-buttresses  were  no  longer  required.  The  whole  design  ap- 
peared internally  more  spacious,  but  lost  greatly  in  variety  and  in 
interest.  The  cathedral  of  St.  Stephen  at  Vienna  is  the  most  im- 
posing instance  of  this  treatment,  which  first  appeared  in  the 
church  of  St.  Elizabeth  at  Marburg  (1235-83;  Fig.  145).  St. 
Barbara  at  Kuttenberg,  St.  Martin's  at  Landshut  (1404),  the 
Frauenkirche  of  Munich,  St.  Catherine  at  Brandenburg,  the 
Abbey  at  Zwettl  and  the 
Cathedral  of  Stendal,  are 
others  among  many  ex- 
amples of  this  type. 

TOWERS  AND  SPIRES. 
The  same  fondness  for  spires 
which  had  been  displayed 
in  the  Rhenish  Romanesque 
churches  produced  in  the 
Gothic  period  a  number  of 
strikingly  beautiful  church 
steeply,  in  which  openwork 
tracery  was  substituted  for 
the  solid  stone  pyramids  of 
earlier  examples.  The  most 
remarkable  of  these  spires 

are  those  of  Freiburg  (1300),  Strasburg,  and  Cologne  Cathe- 
drals, of  the  church  at  Esslingen,  St.  Martin's  at  Landshut, 
and  the  Cathedral  of  Vienna.  In  these  the  transition  from  the 
simple  square  tower  below  to  the  octagonal  belfry  and  spire  is 
generally  managed  with  skill.  In  the  remarkable  tower  of 
the  cathedral  at  Vienna  (1433)  the  transition  is  too  gradual,  so 


MS. SECTION    OP    ST.    ELIZABETH, 

MARBURG. 


246  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

that  the  spire  seems  to  start  from  the  ground  and  lacks  the  vigor 
and  accent  of  a  simpler  square  lower  portion.  The  over-elabor- 
ate spire  of  Strasburg  (1429,  by  Junckher  of  Cologne;  lower 
parts  and  facade,  1277-1365,  by  Erwin  von  Stelnbach  and  his 
sons)  reaches  a  height  of  468  feet;  the  spires  of  Cologne,  com- 
pleted in  1883  from  the  original  fourteenth-century  drawings,  long 
lost  but  recovered  by  a  happy  accident,  are  500  feet  high.  The 
spires  of  Ratisbon  and  Ulm  have  also  been  recently  completed 
in  the  original  style. 

DETAILS.  German  window  tracery  was  best  where  it  most 
closely  followed  French  patterns,  but  it  tended  always  towards 
the  faults  of  mechanical  stiffness  and  of  technical  display  in  over- 
slenderness  of  shafts  and  mullions.  The  windows,  especially  in 
the  "  hall-churches,"  were  apt  to  be  too  narrow  for  their  height. 
In  the  fifteenth  century  ingenuity  of  geometrical  combinations 
took  the  place  of  grace  of  line,  and  later  the  tracery  was  often 
tortured  into  a  stone  caricature  of  rustic-work  of  interlaced  and 
twisted  boughs  and  twigs,  represented  with  all  their  bark  and 
knots  (branch-tracery).  The  execution  was  far  superior  to  the 
design.  A  favorite  device  for  the  display  of  technical  skill  was  the 
carving  of  intersecting  mouldings.  The  carving  of  foliage  in 
capitals,  finials,  etc.,  calls  for  no  special  mention  for  its  originality 
or  its  departure  from  French  types. 

PLANS.  In  these  there  was  more  variety  than  in  any  other 
part  of  Europe  except  Italy.  Some  churches,  like  Naumburg, 
retained  the  Romanesque  system  of  a  second  western  apse  and 
short  choir.  The  Cistercian  churches  generally  had  square  east 
ends,  while  the  polygonal  eastern  apse  without  ambulatory  is  seen 
in  St.  Elizabeth  at  Marburg;  the  Minster  at  Ulm,  the  cathedrals 
of  Ratisbon  and  Vienna,  and  many  other  churches.  The  earliest 
example  of  the  chevet  with  a  single  ambulatory  and  a  series  of 
radiating  apsidal  chapels  was  Madgeburg  Cathedral  (1208-11), 
later  followed  by  Altenburg,  Cologne,  Freiburg,  LUbeck,  Prague 
and  /Cwettl,  St.  Francis  at  Sal/burg  and  some  other  churches. 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE   IN    GERMANY. 


247 


Side  chapels  to  nave  or  choir  appear  in  the  cathedrals  of  Llibeck, 
Munich,  Oppenheim,  Prague  and  Zwettl.  Cologne  Cathedral, 
by  far  the  largest  and  jnost  magnificent  of  all,  is  completely 
French  in  plan,  uniting  in  one  design  the  leading  characteristics 
of  the  most  notable  French  churches  (Fig.  146).  It  has  com- 
plete double  aisles  in  both  nave 
and  choir,  three-aisled  transepts, 
radial  chevet-chapels  and  twin 
western  towers.  The  ambulatory 
is,  however,  single,  and  there  are 
no  lateral  chapels.  A  typical 
German  treatment  was  the  east- 
ward termination  of  the  church 
by  polygonal  chapels,  one  in  the 
axis  of  each  aisle,  the  central  one 
projecting  beyond  its  neighbors. 
Where  there  were  five  aisles,  as 
at  Xanten,  the  effect  was  partic- 
ularly fine.  The  plan  of  the  cu- 
rious polygonal  church  of  Our 
Lady  (Liebfrauenkirche;  1227- 
43)  built  on  the  site  of  the 
ancient  circular  baptistery  at 
Treves,  would  seem  to  have  been 

produced   by  doubling  such   an  arrangement  on  either  side  of 
the  transverse  axis  (Fig.  147). 

HISTORICAL  DEVELOPMENT.  The  so-called  Golden  Por- 
tal of  Freiburg  in  the  Erzgebirge  is  perhaps  the  first  distinc- 
tively Gothic  work  in  Germany,  dating  from  1190.  From  that 
time  on,  Gothic  details  appeared  with  increasing  frequency,  espe- 
cially in  the  Rhine  provinces,  as  shown  in  many  transitional 
structures.  Gelnhausen  and  Aschaffenburgare  early  thirteenth 
century  examples;  pointed  arches  and  vaults  appear  in  the 
Apostles'  and  St.  Martin's  churches  at  Cologne;  and  the  great 


146. COLOGNE  CATHEDRAL. 

PLAN. 


248 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


church  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  at  Nemveiler  in  Alsace  has  an 
almost  purely  Gothic  nave  of  the  same  period.  The  churches  of 
Bamberg,  Fritzlar,  and  Naumburg,  and  in  Westphalia  those 
of  Miinster  and  Osnabriick,  are  important  examples  of  the 

transition.  The  French  influ- 
ence, especially  the  Burgundian, 
appears  as  early  as  1212  in  the 
cathedral  of  Madgeburg,  imitat- 
ing the  choir  of  Soissons,  and  in 
the  structural  design  of  the  Lieb- 
frauenkirche  at  Treves,  as  al- 
ready mentioned;  it  reached 
complete  ascendancy  in  Alsace 
at  Strasburg  (nave  1240-75),  in 
Baden  at  Freiburg  (nave  1270), 
and  in  Prussia  at  Cologne  (1248- 
1320).  Strasburg  Cathedral  is 
especially  remarkable  for  its 
facade,  the  work  of  Ervvin  von 

Steinbach  and  his  sons  (1277-1346),  designed  after  French 
models,  and  its  north  spire,  built  in  the  fifteenth  century.  Co- 
logne Cathedral  was  begun  in  1248  in  imitation  of  the  newly 
completed  choir  of  Amiens,  and  the  choir  was  consecrated  in 
1322.  The  nave  and  W.  front  were  partly  built  during  the  first 
half  of  the  fourteenth  century,  though  the  towers  were  not  com- 
pleted till  1883.  In  spite  of  its  vast  size  and  slow  construction, 
it  is  in  style  the  most  uniform  of  all  great  Gothic  cathedrals, 
as  it  is  the  most  lofty  (excepting  the  choir  of  Beauvais)  and 
the  largest  excepting  Milan  and  Seville.  Unfortunately  its  de- 
tails, though  pure  and  correct,  are  singularly  dry  and  mechan- 
ical, while  its  very  uniformity  deprives  it  of  the  picturesque  and 
varied  charm  which  results  from  a  mixture  of  styles  recording 
the  labors  of  successive  generations.  The  same  criticism  may 
be  raised  against  the  late  minster  of  Ulm  (choir,  1377  '449> 


FIG.    I4~. CHURCH    OF    OUR    LADY, 

TREVES. 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN   GERMANY. 


249 


nave,  1477;  Fig.  148).  The  Cologne  influence  is  observable  in 
the  widely  separated  cathedrals  of  Utrecht  in  the  Netherlands, 
Metz  in  the  W.,  Minden  and  Halberstadt  (begun  1250;  mainly 
built  after  1327)  in  Saxony,  and  in  the  S.  in  the  church  of  St. 
Catherine  at  Oppenheim.  To  the  E.  and  S.,  in  the  cathedrals 
of  Prague  (Bohemia)  by  Matthew  o]  Arras  (1344-52)  and  Ratis- 
bon  (or  Regensburg,  1275),  the  French  influence  predominates, 
at  least  in  the  details  and  construction. 
The  last-named  is  one  of  the  most  dignified 
and  beautiful  of  German  Gothic  churches 
— German  in  plan,  French  in  execution. 
The  French  influence  also  manifests  itself 
in  the  details  of  many  of  the  peculiarly  Ger- 
man churches  with  aisles  of  equal  height 
(see  p.  244). 

More  peculiarly  German  are  the  brick 
churches  of  North  Germany,  where  stone 
was  almost  wholly  lacking.     In  these,  flat 
walls,   square  towers,  and    decoration   by 
colored  tiles  and  bricks  are  characteristic, 
as  at  Brandenburg  (St.  Godehard  and  St. 
Catherine,  1346-1400)^1  Prentzlau,  Tan- 
germ  unde,  Konigsberg,  etc.     Liibeck  pos- 
sesses notable  monuments  of  brick  archi- 
tecture in  the  churches  of  St.  Mary  and  St.  Catherine,  both 
much  alike  in  plan  and  in  the  flat  and  barren  simplicity  of  their 
exteriors.     St.  Martin's  at  Landshut  in  the  South  is  also  a  no- 
table brick  church. 

LATE  GOTHIC.  As  in  France  and  England,  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries  were  mainly  occupied  with  the  completion  of 
existing  churches,  many  of  which,  up  to  that  time,  were  still 
without  naves.  The  complicated  ribbed  vaults  of  this  period 
are  among  its  most  striking  features  (sec-  p.  244).  Spirt-  building 
was  as  general  as  was  the  erection  of  central  square  towers  in 


FIG.    148. PLAN    OP 

MINSTER    OF    ULM. 


250  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

England,  during  the  same  period.  To  this  time  also  belong  the 
overloaded  traceries  and  minute  detail  of  the  St.  Sebald  and  St. 
Lorenz  churches  and  Frauenkirche,  and  of  several  secular  build- 
ings, all  at  Nuremberg,  the  facade  of  Chemnitz  Cathedral,  and 
similar  works.  The  nave  and  tower  of  St.  Stephen  at  Vienna 
(1359-1433),  the  church  of  Sta.  Maria  in  Gestade  in  the  same 
city,  and  the  cathedral  of  Kaschau  in  Hungary,  are  Austrian 
masterpieces  of  late  Gothic  design. 

SECULAR  BUILDINGS.  Germany  possesses  a  number  of  im- 
portant examples  of  secular  Gothic  work,  chiefly  municipal 
buildings  (gates  and  town  halls)  and  castles.  The  first  com- 
pletely Gothic  castle  or  palace  was  not  built  until  1 280,  at  Mari- 
enburg  (Prussia),  and  was  completed  a  century  later.  It  con- 
sists of  two  courts,  the  earlier  of  the  two  forming  a  closed  square 
and  containing  the  chapel  and  chapter-house  of  the  Order  of  the 
German  Knights.  The  later  and  larger  court  is  less  regular,  its 
chief  feature  being  the  Great  Hall  of  the  Order,  in  two  aisles. 
All  the  vaulting  is  of  the  richest  multiple-ribbed  type.  Other 
castles  are  at  Marienwerder,  Heilsberg  (1350)  in  E.  Prussia, 
Karlstein  in  Bohemia  (1347),  and  the  Albrechtsburg  at  Meissen 
in  Saxony  (1471-83). 

Among  town  halls,  most  of  which  date  from  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries,  may  be  mentioned  those  of  Ratisbon  (Regens- 
burg),  Miinster  and  Hildesheim,  Halberstadt,  Brunswick,  Lii- 
beck,  and  Bremen — the  last  two  of  brick.  These,  and  the  city 
gates,  such  as  the  Spahlenthor  at  Basle  (Switzerland)  and  others 
at  Liibeck  and  Wismar,  are  generally  very  picturesque  edifices. 
Many  fine  guildhalls  were  also  built  during  the  last  two  centuries 
of  the  Gothic  style;  and  dwelling-houses  of  the  same  period,  of 
quaint  and  effective  design,  with  stepped  or  traceried  gables, 
lofty  roofs,  openwork  balconies  and  corner  turrets,  are  to  be 
found  in  many  cities.  Nuremberg  is  especially  rich  in  these. 

THE  NETHERLANDS,  as  might  be  expected  from  their 
jK>sition,  underwent  the  influences  of  both  Fiance  and  Germany. 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE   IN    BELGIUM.  2$  I 

During  the  thirteenth  century,  largely  through  the  intimate  mon- 
astic relations  between  Tournay  and  Noyon,  the  French  influence 
became  paramount  in  what  is  now  Belgium,  while  Holland  re- 
mained more  strongly  German  in  style.  Of  the  two  countries 
Belgium  developed  by  far  the  most  interesting  architecture.  The 
Flemish  town  halls  and  guildhalls  merit  particular  attention  for 
their  size  and  richness,  exemplifying  in  a  worthy  manner  the 
wealth  and  independence  of  the  Flemish  weavers  and  merchants 
in  the  fifteenth  century. 

CATHEDRALS  AND  CHURCHES.  The  earliest  purely 
Gothic  edifice  in  Belgium  was  the  choir  of  Ste.  Gudule  (1225)  at 
Brussels,  followed  in  1242  by  the  choir  and  transepts  of  Tournay, 
designed  with  pointed  vaults,  side  chapels,  and  a  complete  chevet. 
The  transept-ends  are  round,  as  at  Noyon.  It  was  surpassed  in 
splendor  by  the  Cathedral  of  Antwerp  (1352-1422),  remark- 
able for  its  seven-aisled  nave  and  narrow  transepts.  It  covers 
some  70,000  square  feet,  but  its  great  size  is  not  as  effective  inter- 
nally as  it  should  be,  owing  to  the  poverty  of  the  details  and  the 
lack  of  finely  felt  proportion  in  the  various  parts.  The  late  west 
front  (1422-1518)  displays  the  florid  taste  of  the  wealthy  Flemish 
burgher  population  of  that  period,  but  is  so  rich  and  elegant, 
especially  its  lofty  and  slender  north  spire,  that  its  over-decoration 
is  pardonable.  The  cathedral  of  St.  Rombaut  at  Malines 
(choir,  1336;  nave,  1454-64)  is  a  more  satisfactory  church,  though 
smaller  and  with  its  western  towers  incomplete.  The  cathedral 
of  Louvain  belongs  to  the  same  period  (1373-1433).  St.  Wan- 
dru  at  Mons  (1450-1528)  and  St.  Jacques  at  Liege  (1522-58) 
are  interesting  parish  churches  of  the  first  rank,  remarkable  espe- 
cially for  the  use  of  color  in  their  internal  decoration,  for  their  late 
tracery  and  ribbed  vaulting,  and  for  the  absence  of  Renaissance 
details  at  that  late  period. 

TOWN  HALLS:  GUILDHALLS.  These  were  really  the  most 
characteristic  Flemish  edifices,  and  are  in  most  cases  the  most 
conspicuous  monuments  of  their  respective  cities.  The  Cloth 


252 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


Hall  of  Ypres  (1304)  is  the  earliest  and  most  imposing  among 
them;  similar  halls  were  built  not  much  later  at  Bruges,  Malines 
and  Ghent.  The  town  halls  were  mostly  of  later  date,  the  earli- 
est being  that  of  Bruges  (1377).  The  town  halls  of  Brussels 
with  its  imposing  and  graceful  tower,  of  Louvain  (1448-63;  Fig. 

149)  and  of  Oudenarde 
(early  sixteenth  century) 
are  conspicuous  monu- 
ments of  this  class.  The 
town  hall  of  Middel- 
burg,  Holland,  belongs 
also  in  this  group. 

In  general,  the  Gothic 
architecture  of  Belgium 
presents  the  traits  of  a 
borrowed  style,  which 
did  not  undergo  at  the 
hands  of  its  borrowers 
any  radically  novel  or 
fundamental  develop- 
ment. The  structural 
design  is  usually  lack- 
ing in  vigor  and  or- 
ganic significance,  but 
the  details  are  often 

graceful  and  well  designed,  especially  on  the  exterior.  The 
tendency  was  often  towards  over-elaboration,  particularly  in  the 
later  works. 

The  Gothic  architecture  of  Holland  and  of  the  Scandinav- 
ian countries  offers  so  little  that  is  highly  artistic  or  inspiring  in 
character,  that  space  cannot  well  be  given  in  this  work  even  to  an 
enumeration  of  its  chief  monuments. 

SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL.  The  beginnings  of  Gothic  architec- 
ture in  Spain  followed  close  on  the  series  of  campaigns  from  1217 


FIG.    I4Q. TOWN    HAI.I,,   LOUVAIN. 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN   SPAIN. 


253 


to  1252,  which  began  the  overthrow  of  the  Moorish  dominion. 
With  the  resulting  spirit  of  exultation  and  the  wealth  accruing 
from  booty,  came  a  rapid  development  of  architecture,  mainly 
under  French  influence.  Gothic  architecture  was  at  this  date, 
under  St.  Louis,  producing  in  France  some  of  its  noblest  works. 
The  great  cathedrals  of  Toledo  and  Burgos,  begun  between  1220 
and  1230,  were  the 
earliest  purely  Gothic 
churches  in  Spain.  San 
Vincente  at  Avila  and 
the  Old  Cathedral  at 
Salamanca,  of  some- 
what earlier  date,  pre- 
sent a  mixture  of 
round-  and  pointed- 
arched  forms,  with  the 
Romanesque  elements 
predominant  (see  page 
182).  Toledo  Cathe- 
dral, planned  in  imita- 
tion of  Notre  Dame 
and  Bourgcs,  but  ex- 
ceeding them  in  width, 
covers  75,000  square 
feet,  and  thus  ranks 

among  the  largest  of  European  cathedrals.  Internally  it  is  well 
proportioned  and  well  detailed,  recalling  the  early  French  mas- 
terworks,  but  its  exterior  is  less  commendable. 

In  the  contemporary  cathedral  of  Burgos  the  exterior  is  at  least 
as  interesting  as  the  interior.  The  west  front,  of  German  design, 
suggests  Cologne  by  its  twin  openwork  spires  (Fig.  150);  while 
the  crossing  is  embellished  with  a  sumptuous  dome  and  lantern 
or  ( imliorio,  added  as  late  as  1507.  Tin-  chapels  at  the  east  end, 
especially  that  of  the  Condestabile  (14X7),  are  ornate  to  the  i>oint 


FIG.    ISO. PARADE    OP    BURGOS    CATHEDRAL. 


254  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

of  overloading,  a  fault  to  which  late  Spanish  Gothic  work  is  pecu- 
liarly prone.  Other  thirteenth-century  cathedrals  are  those  of 
Leon  (1260),  Valencia  (1262),  and  Barcelona  (1298),  all  ex- 
hibiting strongly  the  French  influence  in  the  plan,  vaulting  and 
vertical  proportions.  The  models  of  Bourges  and  Paris  with 
their  wide  naves,  lateral  chapels  and  semicircular  chevets  were 
followed  in  the  cathedral  of  Barcelona,  in  a  number  of  fourteenth- 
century  churches  both  there  and  elsewhere,  and  in  the  sixteenth- 
century  cathedral  of  Segovia.  In  Sta.  Maria  del  Pi  at  Barcelona, 
in  the  collegiate  church  at  Manresa,  and  in  the  imposing  nave  of 
the  Cathedral  of  Gerona  (1416,  added  to  the  choir  of  1312,  the 
latter  by  a  Southern  French  architect,  Henri  de  Narbonne),  the 
influence  of  Alby  in  southern  France  (see  p.  209)  is  discernible. 
These  are  one-aisled  churches  with  internal  buttresses  separating 
the  lateral  chapels.  The  nave  of  Gerona  is  73  feet  wide,  or 
double  the  average  clear  width  of  French  or  English  cathedral 
naves.  The  resulting  effect  is  not  commensurate  with  the  actual 
dimensions,  and  shows  the  inappropriateness  of  Gothic  details 
for  compositions  so  Roman  in  breadth  and  simplicity. 

SEVILLE.  The  largest  single  edifice  in  Spain,  and  the  largest 
church  built  during  the  Middle  Ages  in  Europe,  is  the  Cathedral 
of  Seville,  begun  in  1401  on  the  site  of  a  Moorish  mosque.  It 
covers  124,000  square  feet,  measuring  415X298  feet,  and  is  a 
simple  rectangle  comprising  five  aisles  with  lateral  chapels.  The 
central  aisle  is  56  feet  wide  and  145  high;  the  side  aisles  and 
chapels  diminish  gradually  in  height,  and  with  the  uniform  piers 
in  six  rows  produce  an  imposing  effect,  in  spite  of  the  lack  of  tran- 
septs or  chevet.  The  somewhat  similar  New  Cathedral  of 
Salamanca  (1510-1560)  shows  the  last  struggles  of  the  Gothic 
style  against  the  incoming  tide  of  the  Renaissance. 

LATER  MONUMENTS.  These  all  partake  of  the  over-decor- 
ation which  characterized  the  fifteenth  century  throughout  Eu- 
rope. In  Spain  this  decoration  was  even  less  constructive  in 
character,  and  more  purely  fanciful  and  arbitrary,  than  in  the 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IX   SPAIN. 


255 


northern  lands;  but  this  very  rejection  of  all  constructive  pre- 
tense gives  it  a  peculiar  charm  and  goes  far  to  excuse  its  extrava- 
gance (Fig.  151).  Decorative  vaulting-ribs  were  made  to  de- 
scribe geometric  pat- 
terns of  great  elegance. 
Some  of  the  late  Gothic 
vaults  by  the  very  exu- 
berance of  imagination 
sh6\vn  in  their  designs, 
almost  disarm  criticism. 
Instead  of  suppressing 
the  walls  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, and  emphasizing 
all  the  vertical  lines,  as 
was  done  in  France 
and  England,  the  later 
Gothic  architects  of 
Spain  delighted  in  broad 
wall-surfaces  and  mul- 
tiplied horizontal  lines. 
Upon  these  surfaces 
they  lavished  carving 
without  restraint  and 
without  any  organic  re- 
lation to  the  structure 
of  the  building.  The 
arcades  of  cloisters  and 
interior  courts  (polios) 
were  formed  with  arches 
of  fantastic  curves 

resting  on  twisted  columns;  and  internal  chapels  in  the  cathe- 
drals were  covered  with  minute  carving  of  exquisite  workman- 
ship, but  wholly  irrational  design.  Probably  the  influence  of 
Moorish  decorative  art  accounts  in  part  for  these  extravagances. 


VALLADOLID. 


256  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

The  eastern  chapels  in  Burgos  Cathedral,  the  votive  church  of 
San  Juan  de  los  Reyes  (1476)  at  Toledo  and  many  portals  of 
churches,  convents  and  hospitals  illustrate  these  tendencies. 

PORTUGAL  is  an  almost  unknown  land  architecturally.  It 
seems  to  have  adopted  the  Gothic  styles  very  late  in  its  history. 
Two  monuments,  however,  are  conspicuous,  the  convent  churches 
of  Batalha  (1390-1520)  and  Belem,  both  marked  by  an  ex- 
treme overloading  of  carved  ornament.  The  Mausoleum  of 
King  Manoel  in  the  rear  of  the  church  at  Batalha  is,  however,  a 
noble  creation,  possibly  by  an  English  master.  It  is  a  polygonal 
domed  edifice,  some  67  feet  in  diameter,  and  well  designed, 
though  covered  with  a  too  profuse  and  somewhat  mechanical 
decoration  of  panels,  pinnacles,  and  carving. 

MONUMENTS:  GERMANY  (C  — cathedral ;  A  — abbey  ;  tr.  =  tran- 
septs).— I3th  century:  Transitional  churches:  Bamberg  C. ;  Naum- 
burg  C. ;  Collegiate  Church,  Fritzlar ;  St.  George,  Limburg-on- 
Lahn ;  St.  Castor,  Coblentz  ;  Heisterbach  A. ; — all  in  early  years  of 
I3th  century.  St.  Gereon,  Cologne,  choir  1212-27;  Liebfrauenkirche, 
Treves,  1227-44;  St.  Elizabeth,  Marburg,  1235-83;  Sts.  Peter  and 
Paul,  Neuweiler,  1250;  Cologne  C.,  choir  1248-1322  (nave  I4th 
century;  towers  finished  1883)  ;  Strasburg  C.,  1250-75  (E.  end 
Romanesque;  faQade  1277-1365;  tower  1429-39);  Halberstadt  C, 
nave  1250  (choir  1327;  completed  1490)  ;  Altenburg  C.,  choir  1255- 
65  (finished  1379);  Wimpfen-im-Thal  church  1259-78;  St.  Law- 
rence, Nuremberg,  1260  (choir  1439-77)  !  St.  Catherine,  Oppen- 
heim,  1262-1317  (choir  1439);  Xanten,  Collegiate  Church,  1263; 
Freiburg  C.,  1270  (W.  tower  1300;  choir  1354);  Toul  C,  1272; 
Meissen  C.,  choir  1274  (nave  1312-42);  Ratisbon  C.,  1275;  St. 
Mary's,  Liibeck,  1276;  Dominican  churches  at  Coblentz,  Gebweiler; 
and  in  Switzerland  at  Basle,  Berne,  and  Zurich. — I4th  century : 
Wiesenkirche,  Sost,  1313;  Osnabriick  C.,  1318  (choir  1420);  St. 
Mary's,  Prcntzlau,  1325;  Augsburg  C.,  1321-1431;  Metz  C..  1330 
rebuilt  (choir  1486)  ;  St.  Stephen's  C.,  Vienna,  1340  (nave  I5th 
century;  tower  1433);  Zwettl  C.,  1343;  Prague  C.,  1344;  church  at 
Tliann,  1351  (tower  finished  i6th  century)  :  Liebfrauenkirche,  Nu- 
remberg, 1355-61;  St.  Sebaldus  Church.  Nuremberg,  1361-77  (nave 
Romanesque)  ;  Minden  C.,  choir  1361  ;  Minster  at  Him,  1377  (choir 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE   IN   SPAIN.  257 

1449;  nave  vaulted  1471;  finished  i6th  century);  Sta.  Barbara, 
Kuttenberg,  1386  (nave  1483);  Erfurt  C. ;  St.  Elizabeth,  Kaschau ; 
Schlettstadt  C. — I5th  century:  St.  Catherine's,  Brandenburg,  1401; 
Frauenkirche,  Esslingen,  1406  (finished  1522)  ;  Minster  at  Berne, 
1421;  Peter- Paulskirche,  Gorlitz,  1423-97;  St.  Mary's,  Stendal, 
1447;  Frauenkirche,  Munich,  1468-88;  St.  Martin's,  Landshut,  1473. 

SECULAR  MONUMENTS  :  Schloss  Marienburg,  1341 ;  Moldau- 
bridge  and  tower,  Prague,  1344;  Karlsteinburg,  1348-57;  Albrechts- 
burg,  Meissen,  1471-83;  Nassau  House,  Nuremberg,  1350;  College 
of  the  Jagellons,  Prague,  late  15th  century;  Council  houses  (Rath- 
haiiser)  at  Nuremburg,  1340;  Brunswick,  1393;  Cologne,  1407-15; 
Basle ;  Breslau  ;  Liibeck ;  Miinster ;  Prague ;  Ulm ;  City  Gates  of 
Basle,  Cologne,  Ingolstadt,  Lucerne. 

THE  NETHERLANDS:  Brussels  C.  (Ste.  Gudule),  1226-80;  Tournai 
C.,  choir  1242  (nave  finished  1380)  ;  Notre  Dame,  Bruges,  1239-97; 
Notre  Dame,  Tongres,  1240;  Utrecht  C.,  1251;  St.  Martin,  Ypres, 
1254;  Notre  Dame,  Dinant,  1255;  church  at  Dordrecht;  church  at 
Aerschot,  1337;  Antwerp  C.,  1352-1411  (W.  front  1422-1518);  St. 
Rombaut,  Malines,  1355-66  (nave  1456-64)  ;  St.  Wandru,  Mons, 
1450-1528;  St.  Lawrence,  Rotterdam,  1472;  other  I5th  century 
churches — St.  Bavon,  Haarlem ;  St.  Catherine,  Utrecht ;  St.  Wal- 
purgis,  Sutphen ;  St.  Bavon,  Ghent  (tower  1461)  ;  St.  Jacques,  Ant- 
werp ;  St.  Pierre,  Louvain ;  St.  Jacques,  Bruges ;  churches  at  Arn- 
heim,  Breda,  Delft;  St.  Jacques,  Liege,  1522. 

SECULAR;  Cloth-hall,  Ypres,  1200-1304;  cloth-hall,  Bruges,  1284; 
town  hall,  Bruges,  1377;  town  hall,  Brussels,  1401-55;  town  hall, 
Louvain,  1448-63 ;  town  hall,  Ghent,  1481  ;  town  hall,  Oudeniirde, 
1527;  Standehuis,  Delft,  1528;  cloth-halls  at  Louvain,  Ghent, 
Malines. 

SPAIN:  I3th  century:  Burgos  C.,  1221  (facade  1442-56;  chapels 
1487;  cimborio  1567);  Toledo  C.,  1227-90  (chapels  I4th  and  isth 
centuries);  Tarragona  C.,  1235;  Leon  C.,  1250  (fagade  I4th  cen- 
tury) ;  Valencia  C.,  1262  (N.  transept  1350-1404;  fagade  1381- 
1418)  ;  Avila  C.,  vault  and  N.  portal  1292-1353  (finished  I4th  cen- 
tury) ;  St.  Esteban,  Burgos;  church  at  Las  Huelgas. — 141!)  century: 
Barcelona  C.,  choir  1298-1329  (nave  and  transepts  1448;  fagade 
i6th  century)  ;  Gerona  C.,  1312-46  (nave  added  1416)  ;  S.  M.  del 
Mar,  Barcelona,  1328-83;  S.  M.  del  Pino,  Barcelona,  same  date; 
Collegiate  Church,  Manresa,  1328;  Oviedo  C.,  1388  (tower  very 
late);  Pampluna  C.,  1397  (mainly  I5th  century). — I5th  century: 


258  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

Seville  C,  1403  (finished  i6th  century;  cimborio  1517-67)  ;  La 
Seo,  Saragossa  (finished  1505);  S.  Pablo,  Burgos,  1415-35;  El 
Parral,  Segovia,  1459;  San  Pablo,  Valladolid,  1463;  Astorga  C., 
1471;  San  Juan  de  los  Reyes,  Toledo,  1476;  Carthusian  church, 
Miraflores,  1488;  San  Juan,  and  La  Merced,  Burgos.— i6th  century: 
Huesca  C.,  1515;  Salamanca  New  Cathedral,  1510-60;  Segovia  C., 
1522;  S.  Juan  de  la  Puerta,  Zamorra. 

SECULAR:  Porta  Serranos,  Valencia,  1349;  Casa  Consistorial, 
Barcelona,  1369-78;  Casa  de  la  Disputacion,  same  city;  Casa  de  las 
Lonjas,  Valencia,  1482. 

PORTUGAL:  Alcobaga  A.,  nave  1211  (choir  1158,  Romanesque); 
cloister  1310;  Se  A.  at  Evora,  1185-1211;  cloister  I4th  century; 
churches  at  Coimbra,  Santarem,  Thomar;  Guarda  C.,  I5th  cen- 
tury ;  at  Batalha,  church  of  Sta.  Maria  de  Victoria  and  mausoleum 
of  King  Manoel,  1387-1515;  at  Belem,  monastery,  late  Gothic. 


CHAPTER    XIX. 

GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN    ITALY. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED:  As  before,  Corroyer,  Reber.  Also, 
Cummings,  A  History  of  Architecture  in  Italy.  De  Fleury,  La 
Toscane  an  moyen  age.  Gruner,  The  Terra  Colta  Architecture  oj 
Northern  Italy.  Mothes,  Die  Baukunst  des  Mittelalters  in  Italien. 
Norton,  Historical  Studies  of  Church  Building  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  Osten,  Bauu'erke  der  Lombardei.  Ruskin,  Stones  oj 
Venice.  Street,  Brick  and  Marble  Architecture  of  Italy.  Willis, 
Remarks  on  the  Architecture  oj  the  Middle  Ages,  especially  oj  Italy. 

GENERAL  CHARACTER.  The  various  Romanesque  styles 
which  had  grown  up  in  Italy  before  1200  lacked  that  unity  of 
principle  out  of  which  alone  a  new  and  homogeneous  national 
style  could  have  been  evolved.  I^ach  province  practised  its  own 
style  and  methods  of  building,  long  after  the  Romanesque  had 
given  place  to  the  Gothic  in  Western  Europe.  The  Italians  cared 
little  for  Gothic  structural  principles.  Their  predilection  for 
walls,  for  broad  spaces  and  large  units,  and  for  small  rather  than 
large  windows,  was  in  every  respect  opposed  to  the  tendencies  of 
Gothic  design,  and  architecture  was  for  them  an  art  of  decorative 
rather  than  of  constructive  logic.  Provided  they  could  secure 
spaces  for  mosaic  and  wall-painting,  they  were  content  to  tie 
their  vaults  with  unsightly  tie-rods  and  to  make  their  church 
facades  mere  screen-walls,  in  form  wholly  unrelated  to  the  build- 
ings behind  them. 

When,  therefore,  under  foreign  influences  pointed  arches, 
tracery,  clustered  shafts,  crockets,  and  finials  came  into  use,  it  was 
merely  as  an  imported  fashion.  Even  when  foreign  architects 


260  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

(usually  Germans)  were  employed,  the  composition,  and  in  large 
measure  the  details,  were  still  Italian  and  provincial.  The  church 
of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi  (1228-53,  by  Jacobus  oj  Meran,  a  German, 
superseded  later  by  an  Italian,  Campello),  and  the  cathedral  of 
Milan  (begun  1389,  perhaps  by  Henry  oj  Gmiind),  are  conspicu- 
ous illustrations  of  this.  Rome  built  basilicas  all  through  the 
Middle  Ages.  Tuscany  continued  to  prefer  flat  walls  veneered 
with  marble  to  the  broken  surfaces  and  deep  buttresses  of  France 
and  Germany.  Venice  developed  a  Gothic  style  of  facade-design 
wholly  her  own  (see  p.  273).  Nowhere  but  in  Italy  could  two 
such  utterly  diverse  structures  as  the  Certosa  at  Pavia  and  the 
cathedral  at  Milan  have  been  erected  at  the  same  time. 

CLIMATE  AND  TRADITION.  Two  further  causes  militated 
against  the  domestication  of  Gothic  art  in  Italy.  The  first  was 
the  brilliant  climate,  which  seems  to  demand  cool,  dim  interiors, 
thick  walls,  and  small  windows,  instead  of  the  vast  traceried 
windows  of  Gothic  design.  The  second  obstacle  was  the  persist- 
ence of  classic  traditions,  both  in  construction  and  decoration. 
The  spaciousness  and  breadth  of  interior  planning  which  charac- 
terized Roman  design,  and  its  amplitude  of  scale  in  every  feature, 
seem  never  to  have  lost  their  hold  on  the  Italians.  The  narrow 
lofty  aisles,  multiplied  supports  and  minute  detail  of  the  Gothic 
style  were  repugnant  to  the  classic  predilections  of  the  Italian 
builders.  The  Roman  acanthus  and  Corinthian  capital  were 
constantly  imitated  in  their  Gothic  buildings,  and  the  round  arch 
continued  all  through  the  Middle  Ages  to  be  used  in  conjunction 
with  the  pointed  arch  (Figs.  152,  153). 

EARLY  BUILDINGS.  Gothic  forms  were  first  introduced  into 
Italy  through  the  agency  of  the  monastic  orders,  especially  the 
Cistercian.  The  churches  and  some  other  buildings  of  the  Cis- 
tercian monasteries  of  Casamari,  Fossanova  and  San  Galgano 
betray  unmistakably  in  their  interior  design  the  hand  of  French 
builders.  They  date  from  the  early  years  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. The  Certosa  at  Chiaravalle  near  Milan  (1208-21)  and 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN   ITALY. 


26l 


most  of  the  churches  erected  by  the  mendicant  orders  of  the 
Franciscans  (founded  1210)  and  Dominicans  (121,.,  were  built 
with  ribbed  vaults  and  pointed  arches.  The  example  set  by 
these  orders  contributed  greatly  to  the  general  adoption  of  the 
foreign  style.  S.  Francesco  at  Assisi,  already  mentioned,  was 
the  first  Gothic  Franciscan  church,  although  S.  Francesco  at 
Bologna,  begun  a  few  years  later, 
was  finished  a  little  earlier.  The 
Dominican  church  of  SS.  Gio- 
vanni e  Paolo  and  the  great 
Franciscan  church  of  Sta.  Maria 
Gloriosa  del  Frari,  both  at  Ven- 
ice, were  built  a  little  later.  Sta. 
Maria  Novella  at  Florence  (i  278), 
and  Sta.  Maria  sopra  Minerva 
at  Rome  (1280),  both  by  the 
brothers  Sisto  and  Ristoro,  and  S. 
Anastasia  at  Verona  (1261)  are 
the  masterpieces  of  the  Domini- 
can builders.  S.  Andrea  at  Ver- 
celli  in  North  Italy,  begun  in 
1219  under  a  foreign  architect,  is 
an  isolated  early  example  of  lay 
Gothic  work.  Though  somewhat 
English  in  its  plan,  and  (unlike 
most  Italian  churches)  provided  with  two  western  spires  in  the 
English  manner,  it  is  in  all  other  respects  thoroughly  Italian  in 
aspect.  The  church  at  Asti,  begun  in  1229,  suggests  German 
models  by  its  high  side  walls  and  narrow  windows. 

CATHEDRALS.  The  greatest  monuments  of  Italian  Gothic 
design  are  the  cathedrals,  in  which,  even  more  than  was  the  case 
in  France,  the  highly  developed  civic  pride  of  the  municipalities 
expressed  itself.  Chief  among  these  half  civic,  half  religious 
monuments  are  the  cathedrals  of  Sienna  (begun  in  1243),  Arezzo 


FIG.    152. DUOMO    AT   FLORENCE. 

PLAN. 

a.  Campanile. 


262 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


(1278),  Orvieto  (1290),  Florence  (the  Duomo,  Sta.  Maria  del 
Fiore,  begun  1294  by  Arnolfo  di  Cambio*),  Lucca  (S.  Martino, 
1350),  Milan  (1389-1418),  and  S.  Petronio  at  Bologna  (1390). 
They  are  all  of  imposing  size;  Milan  is  the  largest  of  all  Gothic 

cathedrals  except  Se- 
ville. S.  Petronio  was 
planned  to  be  600  feet 
long,  the  present 
structure  with  its  three 
broad  aisles  and 
flanking  chapels  being 
merely  the  nave  of  the 
intended  edifice.  The 
Duomo  at  Florence 
(Fig.  153)  is  500  feet 
long  and  covers  82,- 
ooo  square  feet;  the 
nave  has  a  span  of  60 
feet,  while  the  octagon 
at  the  crossing  is  143 
feet  in  diameter.  The 
effect  of  these  colossal 
dimensions  is,  how- 
ever, as  in  a  number 
of  these  large  Italian 

interiors,  singularly  belittled  by  the  bareness  of  the  walls,  by 
the  great  size  of  the  constituent  parts  of  the  composition,  and 
by  the  lack  of  architectural  subdivisions  and  multiplied  detail  to 
serve  as  a  scale  by  which  to  gauge  the  scale  of  the  ensemble. 

INTERIOR  TREATMENT.       It  was  doubtless  intended  to  cover 

these  large  unbroken  wall-surfaces  and  the  vast  expanse  of  the 

vaults  over  naves  of  extraordinary  breadth  with  paintings  and 

color    decoration.     This    would    have    remedied    their    present 

*  Called   by    Vasan    "  Arnolfo   di    Lapo." 


PIC,.    153. NAVE    Ol'    DUOMO    AT    FLORENCE. 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE    IN    ITALY. 


263 


nakedness  and  lack  of  interest,  hut  it  was  only  in  a  very  few  in- 
stances carried  out.  The  douhle  church  of  S.  Francesco  at  As- 
sisi,  decorated  hy  Cimabue,  Giotto,  and  other  early  Tuscan 
painters,  the  Arena  Chapel  at  Padua,  painted  hy  Giotto,  the 
Spanish  Chapel  of  S.  M.  Novella,  Florence,  and  the  east  end  of  S. 
Croce,  Florence,  are  illustrations  of  the  splendor  of  effect  possihle 
by  this  method  of  decoration.  The  bareness  of  effect  in  other, 
unpainted  interiors  was  emphasized  by  the  plainness  of  the 
vaults  destitute  of  minor  ribs.  The  transverse  ribs  were  usually 
broad  arches  with  flat  soffits,  and 
the  vaulting  was  often  sprung  from 
so  low  a  point  as  to  leave  no  room 
for  a  triforium.  Mere  bull's-eyes 
often  served  for  clearstory  win- 
dows, as  in  S.  Anastasia  at  Verona, 
S.  Petronio  at  Bologna,  and  the 
Florentine  Duomo.  The  cathe- 
dral of  S.  Martino  at  Lucca  (Fig. 
154)  is  one  of  the  most  complete 
and  elegant  of  Italian  Gothic  in- 
teriors, having  a  genuine  triforium 
with  traceried  arches.  Even  here, 
however,  there  are  round  arches 
without  mouldings,  flat  pilasters, 
broad  transverse  ribs  recalling 
Roman  arches,  and  insignificant 
bull's-eyes  in  the  clearstory. 

The  failure  to  produce  adequate 
results  of  scale  in  the  interiors  of 
the  larger  Italian  churches  has 

been  already  alluded  to.  It  is  strikingly  exemplified  in  the 
Duomo  at  Florence,  the  nave  of  which  is  60  feet  wide,  with 
four  pier-arches  each  over  55  feet  in  span.  The  immense  vault, 
in  square  hays,  starts  from  the  level  of  the  tops  of  these  arches. 


FIG.  1154. ONB  HAY,  NAVE  OP  CATIIE- 

DUAL    OP    SAM    MAKTINO,  LUCCA. 


264 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


The  interior  (Fig.  153)  is  singularly  naked  and  cold,  giving  no 
conception  of  its  vast  dimensions.  The  colossal  dome  is  an  early 
work  of  the  Renaissance  (see  p.  280).  It  is  not  known  how 
Fr.  TaJ-cnti,  who  in  1357  enlarged  and  vaulted  the  nave  and 
planned  the  east  end,  proposed  to  cover  the  great  octagon.  The 
east  end  is  the  most  effective  part  of  the  design  both  internally 
and  externally,  owing  to  the  relatively  moderate  scale  of  the 

fifteen  chapels  which 
surround  the  apsidal 
arms  of  the  cross.  In 
S.  Petronio  at  Bologna, 
begun  1390  by  Master 
Antonio,  the  scale  is 
better  handled.  The 
nave,  300  feet  long,  is 
divided  into  six  bays, 
each  embracing  two 
side  chapels.  It  is  46 
feet  wide  and  132  feet 
high,  proportions 
w  h  i  c  h  approximate 
those  of  the  French  ca- 
thedrals, and  produce 

an  impression  of  size  somewhat  unusual  in  Italian  churches. 
Orvieto  has  internally  little  that  suggests  Gothic  architecture; 
like  many  Franciscan  and  Dominican  churches  it  is  really  a 
timber-roofed  basilica  with  a  few  pointed  windows.  The  mixed 
Gothic  and  Romanesque  interior  of  Sienna  Cathedral  (Fig. 
155),  with  its  round  arches  and  six-sided  dome,  unsymmetri- 
cally  placed  over  the  crossing,  is  one  of  the  most  impressive 
creations  of  Italian  mediaeval  art.  Alternate  courses  of  black 
and  white  marble  add  richness  but  not  repose  to  the  effect  of 
this  interior:  the  same  is  true  of  Orvieto,  and  of  some  other 
churches.  The  basement  baptistery  of  S.  Giovanni,  under  the 


FIG.    155. INTERIOR    OF   SIENNA    CATHEDRAL. 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN   ITALY.  265 

east  end  of  Sienna  Cathedral,  is  much  more  purely  Gothic  in 
detail. 

In  these,  and  indeed  in  most  Italian  interiors,  the  main  interest 
centres  less  in  the  excellence  of  the  composition  than  in  the  acces- 
sories of  pavements,  pulpits,  choir-stalls,  and  sepulchral  monu- 
ments. In  these  the  decorative  fancy  and  skill  of  the  Italians 
found  unrestrained  exercise,  and  produced  works  of  surpassing 
interest  and  merit. 

EXTERNAL  DESIGN.  The  greatest  possible  disparity  gen- 
erally exists  between  the  sides  and  west  fronts  of  the  Italian 
churches.  With  few  exceptions  the  flanks  present  nothing  like 
the  variety  of  sky-line  and  of  light  and  shade  customary  in  north- 
ern and  western  lands.  The  side  walls  are  high  and  flat,  plain, 
or  striped  with  black  and  white  masonry  (Sienna,  Orvieto),  or 
veneered  with  marble  (Duomo  at  Florence)  or  decorated  with 
surface-ornament  of  thin  pilasters  and  arcades  (Lucca).  The 
clearstory  is  low;  the  roof  low-pitched  and  hardly  visible  from 
below.  Color,  rather  than  structural  richness,  is  generally 
sought  for:  Milan  Cathedral  is  almost  the  only  exception,  and 
goes  to  the  other  extreme,  with  its  seemingly  countless  buttresses, 
pinnacles  and  statues. 

The  facades,  on  the  other  hand,  were  treated  as  independent 
decorative  compositions,  and  were  in  many  cases  remarkably 
beautiful  works,  though  having  little  or  no  organic  relation  to  the 
main  structure.  The  most  celebrated  are  those  of  Sienna  (cathe- 
dral begun  1243;  facade  1284,  by  Giovanni  Phano;  Fig.  156) 
and  Orvieto  (begun  1290,  by  Lorenzo  Maitani;  facade  1310). 
Both  of  these  are  sumptuous  polychromatic  compositions  in  mar- 
ble, designed  on  somewhat  similar  lines,  with  three  high  gables 
fronting  the  three  aisles,  with  deeply  recessed  portals,  pinnacled 
turrets  flanking  nave  and  aisles,  and  a  central  circular  window. 
That  of  Orvieto  is  furthermore  embellished  with  mosaic  pictures, 
and  is  the  more  brilliant  in  color  of  the  two.  The  mediaeval 
facades  of  the  Florentine  Gothic  churches  were  never  completed; 


266 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


but  the  elegance  of  the  panelling  and  of  the  tracery  with  twisted 
shafts  in  the  flanks  of  the  cathedral  and  the  florid  beauty  of  its 
side  doorways  (late  fourteenth  century)  would  doubtless  if  real- 
ized with  equal  success  on  the  facades  have  produced  strikingly 
beautiful  results.  The  modern  facade  of  the  Duomo,  by  the  late 
De  Fabris  (1887)  is  a  correct  if  not  highly  imaginative  version  of 

the  style  so  applied. 
The  front  of  Milan  Ca- 
thedral shows  a  mix- 
ture of  Gothic  and 
Renaissance  forms,  hav- 
ing been  com  pie  ted  only 
in  the  early  nineteenth 
century.*  Ferrara  Ca- 
thedral, although  in- 
ternally transformed  in 
the  last  century,  retains 
its  picturesque  but  ut- 
terly illogical  thirteenth- 
century  three-gabled 
and  arcaded  screen 
front.  The  Cathedral 
of  Genoa  presents 
Gothic  windows  and 

deeply  recessed  portals  in  a  facade  built  in  black  and  white 
bands,  like  Sienna  Cathedral  and  many  churches  in  Pistoia  and 
Pisa. 

Externally  the  most  important  feature  was  frequently  a  cupola 
or  dome  over  the  crossing.  That  of  Sienna  has  already  been 
mentioned;  that  of  Milan  is  a  sumptuous  many-pinnacled  struc- 
ture terminating  in  a  spire  ^oo  feet  high.  The  Certosa  at  Pavia 
(Fig.  157)  and  the  earlier  Carthusian  church  of  Chiaravalle  have 

*  The  proposed  iu:w  Gothic  facade  designed  by  Brentano  (d.  1889) 
has  never  been  carried  out. 


FIG.    156. FACADE    OF    SIKNN'A    CATHKDKAL. 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN   ITALY. 


267 


internal  cujx)las  or  domes  covered  externally  by  many-storied 
structures  ending  in  a  tower  dominating  the  whole  edifice.  These 
two  churches,  like  many  others  in  Lomhardy,  the  /Emilia  and 
Venetia,  are  built  of  brick,  moulded  terra-cotta  being  effectively 
used  for  the  cornices,  string-courses,  jambs  and  ornaments  of  the 
exterior.  The  Certosa  at  Pavia  (1396)  is  contemporary  with  the 
cathedral  of  Milan,  to  which  it  oilers  a  surprising  contrast,  both  in 


style  and  material.  It  is  wholly  built  of  brick  and  terra-cotta,  and, 
save  for  its  ribbed  vaulting,  possesses  hardly  a  single  Gothic 
feature  or  detail.  Its  arches,  mouldings,  and  cloisters  suggest 
both  the  Romanesque  and  the  Renaissance  styles  by  their  semi- 
classic  character. 

PLANS  The  wide  diversity  of  local  styles  in  Italian  architec- 
ture appears  in  the  plans  as  strikingly  as  in  the  details.  In  gen- 
eral one  notes  a  love  of  spaciousness  which  expresses  itself  in  a 
sometimes  disproportionate  breadth,  and  in  the  wide  spacing  of 


268 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


<£§£ 


XV 


- 


the  piers.  The  polygonal  chevet  with  its  radial  chapels  is  but 
rarely  seen;  S.  Lorenzo  at  Naples,  Sta.  Maria  dei  Servi  and  S. 
Francesco  at  Bologna  (1230)  are  among  the  most  important  ex- 
amples. More  frequently  the  chapels  form  a  range  along  the 
east  side  of  the  transepts,  especially  in  the  Franciscan  churches, 
which  otherwise  retain  many  basilican  features.  A  comparison 
of  the  plans  of  S.  Andrea  at  Vercelli,  the  Duomo  at  Florence,  the 
cathedrals  of  Sienna  and  Milan,  S.  Petronio  at  Bologna  and  the 

Certosa  at  Pavia  (Fig.  158),  suf- 
ficiently illustrates  the  variety  of 
Italian  Gothic  plan-types. 

ORNAMENT.  Applied  decora- 
tion plays  a  large  part  in  all  Ital- 
ian Gothic  designs.  Inlaid  and 
mosaic  patterns  and  panelled 
veneering  in  colored  marble  are 
essential  features  of  the  exterior 
decoration  of  most  Italian 
churches.  Florence  offers  a  fine 
example  of  this  treatment  in  the 
Duomo,  and  in  its  accompanying 
Campanile  or  bell-tower,  de- 
signed by  Giotto  (1335)  and  com- 
pleted by  Gaddi  and  Talenti. 

This  beautiful  tower  is  an  epitome  of  Italian  Gothic  decorative 
art.  Its  inlays,  mosaics,  and  veneering  are  treated  with  consum- 
mate elegance,  and  combined  with  incrusted  reliefs  of  great 
beauty.  The  tracery  of  this  monument  and  of  the  side  windows 
of  the  adjoining  cathedral  is  lighter  and  more  graceful  than  is 
common  in  Italy.  Its  beauty  consists,  however,  less  in  move- 
ment of  line  than  in  richness  and  elegance  of  carved  and  inlaid 
ornament.  In  the  Or  San  Michele— a  combined  chapel  and 
granary  in  Florence  dating  from  1335 — the  tracery  is  far  less 
light  and  open.  In  general,  except  in  churches  like  the  cathe- 


1 

Mu 


PIG.    158.- 


-PLAN    OF    CERTOSA    AT 
PAVIA. 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN    ITALY. 


269 


dral  of  Milan,  built  under   German   influences,  the  tracery  in 
secular  monuments  is  more  successful  than  in  ecclesiastical  struc- 
tures.    Venice    developed  the 
designing  of  tracery  to  greater 
jK-rfection  in  her  palaces  than 
any  other  Italian  city  (see  be- 
low). 

MINOR  WORKS.  Italian 
Gothic  art  found  freer  expres- 
sion in  semi-decorative  wotks, 
like  tombs,  altars  and  votive 
chapels,  than  in  more  monu- 
mental structures.  The  four- 
teenth century  was  particularly 
rich  in  canopy  tombs,  mostly 
in  churches,  though  some  were 
erected  in  the  open  air,  like  the 
celebrated  Tombs  of  the  Scal- 
igers  in 'Verona  (1329-1380). 
Many  of  those  in  churches  in 
and  near  Rome,  and  others  in 
south  Italy,  are  especially  rich 
in  inlay  of  opus  Alcxandrimint. 
uj)on  their  twisted  columns  and 
panelled  sarcophagi.  The 
family  of  the  Cosmali  acquired 
great  fame  for  work  of  this 
kind  during  the  thirteenth 
century. 

The  little  marble  chapel  of 
Sta.  Maria  della  Spina,  on 

the  Arno,  at  Pisa,  is  an  instance  of  the  decorative'  though  illog- 
ical use  of  Gothic  forms  in  minor  buildings. 

TOWERS.     The   Italians  always  preferred  the  square   tower 


159. UIM'KK    PART    OP    CAMPANILE, 

PLOKKNCK. 


270 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


to  the  spire,  and  in  most  cases  treated  it  as  an  independent  cam- 
panile. Following  Early  Christian  and  Romanesque  traditions, 
these  square  towers  were  usually  built  with  plain  sides  unbroken 
by  buttresses,  and  terminated  in  a  flat  roof  or  a  low  and  incon- 
spicuous cone  or  pyramid.  The  Cam- 
panile at  Florence  already  mentioned  is 
by  far  the  most  beautiful  of  these  designs 
(Fig.  159).  The  campaniles  of  Sienna. 
Lucca,  and  Pistoia  are  built  in  alternate 
white  and  •  black  courses,  like  the  ad- 
joining cathedrals.  Verona  and  Mantua 
have  towers  with  octagonal  lanterns 
In  general,  these  Gothic  towers  differ 
from  the  earlier  Romanesque  models 
chiefly  in  the  forms  of  their  openings  and 
their  decorative  details. 
They  are  picturesque 
and  well  proportioned, 
but  lack  the  poetry  and 
variety  of  the  Western 
Gothic  towers  and  spires. 
SECULAR  MONU- 
MENTS. In  their  public 
halls,  open  loggias,  and 
domestic  architecture  the 
Italians  were  able  to 

develop  the  application  of  Gothic  forms  with  greater  freedom 
than  in  their  church- building,  because  unfettered  by  traditional 
methods  of  design.  The  early  and  vigorous  growth  of  munici- 
pal and  popular  institutions  led,  as  in  the  Netherlands,  to  the 
building  of  two  classes  of  public  halls — the  town  hall  proper  or 
Podcsla,  and  the  council  hall,  variously  called  Palazzo  Com- 
munale,  Pnl>blico,  or  del  Consiglio.  The  town  halls,  as  the  seat 
of  authority,  usually  have  a  severe  and  fortress-like  character; 


FIG.    l6o. 


UI'I'ER  PART  OF  PALA7ZO  VECCHIO, 
FLORENCE. 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN   ITALY. 


2/i 


the  Bargello  at  Florence  is-  the  most  important  example,  dating 
in  part  from  1250.  Even  more  imposing  is  the  well-known 
Palazzo  Vecchio,  the  council  hall  of  the  same  city  (1298,  by 
Arnolfo  cli  Cambio;  Fig.  160),  with  a  tower  which,  rising  308 
feet  in  the  air,  overhangs  the  street  fully  4  feet,  its  front  wall 
resting  on  the  face  of  the  powerfully  corbelled  cornice  of  the 
palace.  The  court  and  most  of  the  interior  were  remodelled  in 


FIO.     ifil.        LOOr.IA    PKI    I.  •  V7I,    KLOKHSTF.. 

the  sixteenth  century.  At  Sienna  is  a  somewhat  similar  struc- 
ture in  brick,  the  Palazzo  Pubblico.  At  Pistoia  the  Podcsta 
and  the  Communal  Palace  stand  opposite  each  other;  in  both 
of  these  the  courtyards  still  retain  their  original  aspect.  At 
Perugia,  Bologna,  and  Viterbo  are  others  of  some  importance; 
while  in  Lombardy,  Bergamo,  Como,  Cremona,  Piaccn/.a  and 
other  towns  possess  smaller  halls  with  open  arcades  below,  of 
a  more  elegant  and  pleasing  aspect.  More-  successful  still  are 
the  open  loggias  or  tribunes  erected  for  the  gatherings  of  public 
bodies.  The  noble  Loggia  dei  Lanzi  at  Florence  (i,;;<>,  by 
Bc>t(  i  di  done  and  Sinwnc  di  Talcnti)  is  the  largest  and  most 


272 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


famous  of  these  open  vaulted  halls,  of  which  several  exist  in 
Florence  and  Sienna.  Gothic  only  in  their  minor  details,  they 
are  Romanesque  or  semi-classic  in  their  broad  round  arches 
and  strong  horizontal  lines  and  cornices  (Fig.  161). 

PALACES  AND  HOUSES:  VENICE.     The  northern  cities,  espe- 
cially Pisa,  Florence,  Sienna,  Bologna,  and  Venice,  are  rich  in 

medix'val  public  and 
private  palaces  and 
dwellings  in  brick  or 
marble,  in  which  point- 
ed windows  and  open 
arcades  are  used  with 
excellent  effect.  In 
Bologna  and  Sienna 
(e.g.  Grotanelli,  Sara- 
ceni  and  Buonsignori 
palaces)  brick  is  used, 
in  conjunction  with  de- 
tails executed  in  mould- 
ed terra-cotta,  in  a 
highly  artistic  and  ef- 
fective way.  Viterbo, 
nearer  Rome,  also  pos- 
sesses many  interesting 
houses,  with  street  ar- 
leading  to  the  main 


FIG.    162. WEST   FROXT    OF    DOGE'S    PALACF. 

VENICE. 


cades    and    open    stairways    or   stoops 
entrance. 

The  security  and  prosperity  of  Venice  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
the  ever  present  influence  of  the  sun-loving  East,  made  the  mas- 
sive and  fortress-like  architecture  of  the  inland  cities  unnecessary. 
Abundant  openings,  large  windows  full  of  tracery  of  grcaf  light- 
ness and  elegance,  projecting  balconies  and  the  freest  use  of 
marble  veneering  and  inlay — a  survival  of  Byzantine  traditions  of 
the  twelfth  century  (see  p.  133) — give  to  the  Venetian  houses  and 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN   ITALY.  273 

palaces  an  air  of  gaycty  and  elegance  found  nowhere  else.  While 
there  are  few  Gothic  churches  of  importance  in  Venice,  the  num- 
ber of  medkeval  houses  and  palaces  is  very  large.  Chief  among 
these  is  the  Doge's  Palace  (Tig.  162),  adjoining  the  church  of  St. 
Mark.  The  two-storied  arcades  of  the  west  and  south  fronts 
date  from  1354,  and  originally  stood  out  from  the  main  edifice, 
which  was  widened  in  the  next  century,  when  the  present  some- 
what heavy  walls,  laid  up  in  red,  white  and  black  marble  in  a 
species  of  quarry-pattern,  were  built  over  the  arcades.  These 
arcades  are  beautiful  designs,  combining  massive  strength  and 
grace  in  a  manner  quite  foreign  to  Western  Gothic  ideas.  Lighter 
and  more  ornate  is  the  Ca  d'Oro,  on  the  Grand  Canal;  while 
the  Foscari,  Contarini-Fasan,  Cavalli,  and  Pisani  palaces,  among 
many  others,  are  admirable  examples  of  the  style.  In  most  of 
these  a  traccried  loggia  occupies  the  central  part,  flanked  by  walls 
incrusted  with  marble  and  pierced  by  Gothic  windows  with 
carved  mouldings,  borders,  and  balconies.  The  Venetian  Gothic 
owes  its  success  largely  to  the  absence  of  structural  difficulties  to 
interfere  with  the  purely  decorative  development  of  Gothic 
details. 

MONUMENTS.  I3th  Century :  Cistercian  abbeys  Fossanova,  San 
Galgano,  S.  Martino  al  Cimino  and  Casamari.  cir.  1208;  S.  An- 
drea, Vcrcclli,  1219;  S.  Francesco,  Assisi,  1228-5,} ;  Church  at  Asti, 
1229;  S.  Francesco,  Bologna;  Sienna  C.,  1243-59  (cupola  1259-64; 
facade  1284)  ;  S.  M.  Cloriosa  del  Frari,  Venice,  1250-80  (finished 
1388);  Sta.  Cbiara,  Assisi,  1250;  Sta.  Trinita.  Florence,  1250;  S. 
Antonio,  Padua,  begun  1256;  SS.  Giovanni  e  Paolo,  Venice.  I26o(  ?)- 
1400;  Sta.  Anastasia,  Verona,  1261;  Naples  C.,  1272-1314  (facade 
1299;  portal  1407;  much  altered  later);  S.  Lorenxo,  Naples,  1275; 
Campo  Santo,  Pisa,  1278-83;  Arcxxo  C.,  1278;  S.  M.  Novella, 
Florence.  1278;  S.  luistorgio,  Milan,  1278;  S.  M.  sopra  Minerva, 
Rome.  1280;  Orvieto  C.,  1290  (facade  1310;  roof  1330)  ;  Sta.  Croce, 
Florence,  1294  (facade  1863);  S.  M.  del  Fiore.  or  C.,  Florence, 
1294-1310  (enlarged  1357;  E.  end  1366;  dome  1420-64;  facade 
1887). — i4th  century:  Genoa  C.,  early  I4tb  century;  S.  Francesco. 
Sienna,  1310;  San  Domenico,  Sienna,  about  same  date;  S.  Giovanni 


274  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

in  Fonte,  Sienna,  1317;  S.  M.  dclla  Spina,  Pisa,  1323;  Campanile, 
Florence,  1335;  Or  San  Michele,  Florence,  1337;  Milan  C,  1386 
(cupola  i6th  century;  fagade  i6th-ipth  century;  new  fagade  build- 
ing, 1895)  I  S.  Petronio,  Bologna,  1390;  Certosa,  Pavia,  1306  (choir, 
transepts,  cupola,  cloisters,  151)1  and  i6th  centuries)  ;  Como  C., 
1396  (choir  and  transepts  1513)  ;  Lucca  C.  (S.  Martino),  Roman- 
esque building  remodelled  late  in  I4th  century ;  Verona  C. ;  S. 
Fermo,  Maggiore;  S.  Francesco,  Pisa;  S.  Lorenzo,  Vicenza. — I5th 
century:  Perugia  C. ;  S.  M.  delle  Grazie,  Milan,  1470  (cupola  and 
exterior  E.  part  later). 

SECULAR  BUILDINGS:  Pal.  Pubblico,  Cremona,  1245;  Pal.  Podesta 
(Bargello),  Florence,  1255  (enlarged  1333-45)  ;  Pal-  Pubblico, 
Sienna,  1289-1305  (many  later  alterations)  ;  Pal.  Giurcconsulti, 
Cremona,  1292 ;  Broletto,  Monza,  1293 ;  Loggia  dei  Mercanti, 
Bologna,  1294;  Pal.  Vccchio,  Florence,  1298;  Broletto,  Como;  Pal. 
Ducale  (Doge's  Palace),  Venice,  1310-40  (great  windows  1404; 
extended  1423-38;  courtyard  I5th  and  i6th  centuries);  Loggia  dei 
Lanzi,  Florence,  1335;  Loggia  del  Bigallo,  1337;  Broletto,  Ber- 
gamo, I4th  century;  Loggia  dei  Nobili,  Sienna,  1407;  Pal.  Pub- 
blico, Udine,  1457;  Loggia  dei  Mercanti,  Ancona ;  Pal.  del  Governo, 
Bologna ;  Pal.  Pepoli,  Bologna ;  Palaces  Conte  Bardi,  Davanzati, 
Capponi,  all  at  Florence ;  at  Lucca,  Pal.  Guinigi ;  at  Sienna,  Pal. 
Tolomei,  1205;  Pal.  Saraceni,  Pal.  Buonsignori,  Pal.  Salimbeni, 
Pal.  Grotanelli ;  at  Venice,  Pal.  Contarini-Fasan,  Cavalli,  Foscari, 
Pisani,  and  many  others ;  others  in  Padua  and  Vicenza. 


CHAPTER    XX. 
EARLY    RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE    IN    ITALY. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDI-:!):  Anderson,  Architecture  o]  the  Renais- 
sance in  Italy.  Burckhardt,  The  Civilization  of  the  Renaissance; 
Der  Cicerone.  Cellesi,  Scl  Fabbriche  di  Fircnze.  Cicognara,  Ix 
Fabbrifhe  pift  cospicue  di  Venezia.  Durm,  Die  Baukunst  der 
Renaissance  in  Italien  (in  Hdbuch.  d.  Arch.}.  Fergusson,  His- 
tory o/  Modern  Architecture.  Geymiillcr,  La  Renaissance  en  Tos- 
cane.  Kinross,  Details  from  Italian  Buildings.  Meyer,  Ober- 
italienischeFriih  renaissance:  Bauten  und  BiUhccrkcdcr  Lombardci. 
Montigny  et  Famin,  Architecture  Toscane.  Moore,  Character  0} 
Renaissance  Architecture.  Miintz,  La  Renaissance  en  Italic  et  en 
France  a  Vepoque  de  Charles  \  'III.  Palustre,  L'A  rchitecture  de  la 
Renaissance.  Schiitz,  Die  Renaissance  in  Italien.  Stegmann, 
Die  Architektur  der  Renaissance  in  Toscana.  Symonds,  The 
Renaissance  oj  the  Fine  Arts  in  Italy.  Tosi  and  Becchio,  Altars, 
Tabernacles,  and  Tombs. 

THE  CLASSIC  REVIVAL.  The  abandonment  of  Gothic  ar- 
chitecture in  Italy  and  the  substitution  in  its  place  of  forms  do- 
rived  from  classic  models  were  occasioned  by  no  sudden  or  merely 
local  revolution.  The  Renaissance  was  the  result  of  a  profound 
intellectual  movement,  whose  roots  may  be  traced  far  back  into 
the  Middle  Ages,  and  which  manifested  itself  first  in  Italy  simply 
Ijccause  there  the  conditions  were  most  propitious.  It  spread 
through  Europe  just  as  rapidly  as  similar  conditions  appearing  in 
other  countries  prepared  the  way  for  it.  The  essence  of  this  far- 
reaching  movement  was  the  protest  of  the  individual  reason 
against  the  trammels  of  external  and  arbitrary  authority — a  pro- 
test which  found  its  earliest  organized  expression  in  the  Human- 


2/6  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

ists.  In  its  assertion  of  the  intellectual  and  moral  rights  of  the 
individual,  the  Renaissance  laid  the  foundations  of  modern 
civilization.  The  same  spirit,  in  rejecting  the  authority  and 
teachings  of  the  Church  in  matters  of  purely  secular  knowledge, 
led  to  the  questionings  of  the  precursors  of  modern  science  and 
the  discoveries  of  the  early  navigators.  But  in  nothing  did 
the  reaction  against  mediaeval  scholasticism  and  asceticism 
display  itself  more  strikingly  than  in  the  joyful  enthusiasm 
which  marked  the  pursuit  of  classic  studies.  The  long- 
neglected  treasures  of  classic  literature  were  reopened  and  turned 
to  new  account  in  the  fourteenth  century  by  the  immortal  trio — 
Dante,  Petrarch,  and  Boccaccio.  The  joy  of  living,  the  delight 
in  beauty  and  pleasure  for  their  own  sakes,  the  exultant  awaken- 
ing to  the  sense  of  personal  freedom,  which  came  with  the  bursting 
of  mediaeval  fetters,  found  in  classic  art  and  literature  their  most 
sympathetic  expression.  It  was  in  Italy,  where  feudalism  had 
never  fully  established  itself,  and  where  the  municipalities  and 
guilds  had  developed,  as  nowhere  else,  the  sense  of  civic  and 
personal  freedom,  that  these  symptoms  first  manifested  them- 
selves. In  Italy,  and  above  all  in  the  Tuscan  cities,  they  appeared 
throughout  the  fourteenth  century  in  the  growing  enthusiasm  for 
all  that  recalled  the  antique  culture,  and  in  the  rapid  advance  of 
luxury  and  refinement  in  both  public  and  private  life. 

THE  RENAISSANCE  OF  THE  ARTS.  Classic  Roman  archi- 
tecture had  never  lost  its  influence  on  the  Italian  taste.  Gothic 
art,  already  declining  in  the  West,  had  never  been  in  Italy  more 
than  a  borrowed  garb,  clothing  architectural  conceptions  classic 
rather  than  Gothic  in  spirit.  The  antique  monuments  which 
abounded  on  every  hand  were  ever  present  models  for  the  artist, 
and  to  the  Florentines  of  the  early  fifteenth  century  the  civiliza- 
tion which  had  created  them  represented  the  highest  ideal  of 
human  culture.  They  longed  to  revive  in  their  own  time  the 
glories  of  ancient  Rome,  and  appropriated  with  uncritical  and 
undiscriminating  enthusiasm  the  good  and  the  bad,  the  early  and 


THE   EARLY    RENAISSANCE    IN    ITALY.  2/7 

the  late  forms  of  Roman  art.  Naively  unconscious  of  the  dis- 
parity between  their  own  architectural  conceptions  and  those  they 
fancied  they  imitated,  they  were,  unknown  to  themselves,  creat- 
ing a  new  style,  in  which  the  details  of  Roman  art  were  fitted  in 
novel  combinations  to  new  requirements.  In  proportion  as  the 
Church  lost  its  hold  on  the  culture  of  the  age,  this  new  architec- 
ture entered  increasingly  into  the  service  of  private  luxury  and 
public  display.  It  created,  it  is  true,  striking  types  of  church 
design,  and  made  of  the  dome  one  of  the  most  imposing  of  exter- 
nal features;  but  its  most  characteristic  products  were  palaces, 
villas,  council  halls,  and  monuments  to  the  great  and  the  power- 
ful. The  personal  clement  in  design  asserted  itself  as  never  be- 
fore in  the  growth  of  schools  and  the  development  of  styles. 
Thenceforward  the  history  of  Italian  architecture  becomes  the 
history  of  the  achievements  of  individual  artists. 

EARLY  BEGINNINGS.  Already  in  the  thirteenth  century  the 
pulpits  of  Niccolo  Pisano  at  Sienna  and  Pisa  had  revealed  that 
master's  direct  recourse  to  antique  monuments  for  inspiration  and 
suggestion.  In  the  frescoes  of  Giotto  and  his  followers,  and  in 
the  architectural  details  of  many  nominally  Gothic  buildings, 
classic  forms  had  appeared  with  increasing  frequency  during  the 
fourteenth  century.  This  was  especially  true  in  Florence,  which 
was  then  the  artistic  capital  of  Italy.  Never,  perhaps,  since  the 
days  of  Pericles,  had  there  been  another  community  so  permeated 
with  the  love  of  beauty  in  art,  and  so  endowed  with  the  capacity 
to  realize  it.  Her  artists,  with  unexampled  versatility,  addressed 
themselves  with  equal  success  to  goldsmiths'  work,  sculpture, 
architecture  and  engineering — often  to  painting  and  poetry  as 
well;  and  they  were  quick  to  catch  in  their  art  the  spirit  of  the 
classic  revival.  The  new  movement  achieved  its  first  archi- 
tectural triumph  in  the  dome  of  the  cathedral  of  Florence  (14:20- 
64);  and  it  was  Florentine1 — or  at  least  Tuscan — artists  who 
planted  in  other  centres  the  seeds  of  the  new  art  that  wen-  to 
spring  up  in  the  local  and  provincial  schools  of  Sienna,  Milan, 


2/8  HISTORY    OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

Pavia,  Bologna,  and  Venice,  of  Brescia,  Lucca,  Perugia,  and 
Rimini,  and  many  other  North  Italian  cities.  The  movement 
asserted  itself  late  in  Rome  and  Naples,  as  an  importation  from 
Northern  Italy,  but  it  bore  abundant  fruit  in  these  cities  in  its 
later  stages. 

PERIODS.  The  classic  styles  which  grew  up  out  of  the  Re- 
naissance may  be  divided  for  convenience  into  four  periods, 
although,  as  in  all  the  history  of  architecture,  the  date-limits 
assigned  are  wholly  arbitrary,  since  there  was  nowhere  any  sharp 
dividing  line  between  them. 

THE  EARLY  RENAISSANCE  or  FORMATIVE  PERIOD,  1420-90; 
characterized  by  the  grace  and  freedom  of  the  decorative  detail, 
suggested  by  Roman  prototypes  and  applied  to  compositions  of 
great  variety  and  originality. 

THE  HIGH  RENAISSANCE  or  FORMALLY  CLASSIC  PERIOD,  1490- 
1550.  During  this  period  classic  details,  and  especially  the 
"orders,"  were  copied  with  increasing  fidelity.  There  was 
increase  of  stateliness  but  some  loss  in  freedom  and  delicacy  of 
design. 

THE  BAROQUE,  1550-1600;  a  period  of  classic  formality  char- 
acterized by  the  use  of  colossal  orders,  engaged  columns  and 
rather  scanty  and  heavy  decoration. 

THE  DECLINE,  1600  1700;  a  period  marked  by  poverty  of 
invention  in  the  composition  and  a  predominance  of  vulgar  sham 
and  display  in  the  decoration.  Broken  pediments,  huge  scrolls, 
florid  stucco-work  and  a  general  disregard  of  architectural  pro- 
priety were  universal. 

During  the  eighteenth  century  there  was  a  reaction  from  these 
extravagances,  which  showed  itself  in  a  return  to  the  imitation  of 
classic  models,  sometimes  not  without  a  certain  dignity  of 
coni]X)sition  and  restraint  in  the  decoration. 

By  many  writers  the  name  Renaissance  is  confined  to  the  first 
]>eriod.  This  is  etymologically  correct;  but  the  difficulty  of  dis- 
sociating the  first  period  historically  from  those  which  followed  it. 


THE   EARLY    RENAISSANCE   IN    ITALY.  2/9 

down  to  the  final  exhaustion  of  the  artistic  movement  to  which  it 
gave  birth,  warrants  a  broader  use  of  the  term. 

Another  division  is  made  by  the  Italians,  who  give  the  name  of 
the  Quattrocento  to  the  period  which  closed  with  the  end  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  Cinquecento  to  the  sixteenth  century,  and 
Seiccnto  to  the  seventeenth  century  or  Decline.  It  has,  however, 
become  common  to  confine  the  use  of  the  term  Cinquecento  to  the 
first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

CONSTRUCTION  AND  DETAIL.  The  architects  of  the  Re- 
naissance occupied  themselves  more  with  form  than  with  con- 
struction, and  rarely  set  themselves  constructive  problems  of 
great  difficulty.  Although  the  new  architecture  began  with  the 
colossal  dome  of  the  cathedral  of  Florence,  and  culminated  in  the 
stupendous  church  of  St.  Peter  at  Rome,  it  was  pre-eminently  an 
architecture  of  palaces  and  villas,  of  facades  and  of  decorative 
display.  Constructive  difficulties  were  reduced  to  their  lowest 
terms,  and  the  constructive  framework  was  concealed,  not  em- 
phasized, by  the  decorative  apparel  of  the  design.  Among  the 
masterpieces  of  the  early  Renaissance  are  many  buildings  of 
small  dimensions,  such  as  gates,  chapels,  tombs  and  fountains. 
In  these  the  individual  fancy  had  full  sway,  and  produced  surpris- 
ing results  by  the  beauty  of  enriched  mouldings,  of  carved  friezes 
with  infant  genii,  wreaths  of  fruit,  griffins,  masks  and  scrolls; by 
pilasters  covered  with  arabesques  as  delicate  in  modelling  as  if 
wrought  in  silver;  by  inlays  of  marble,  panels  of  glazed  terra- 
cotta, marvellously  carved  doors,  fine  stucco-work  in  relief,  capi- 
tals and  cornices  of  wonderful  richness  and  variety.  The  Roman 
orders  appeared  only  in  free  imitations,  with  panelled  and  carved 
pilasters  for  the  most  part  instead  of  columns,  and  capitals  of 
fanciful  design,  recalling  remotely  the  Corinthian  by  their  volutes 
and  leaves  (Fig.  163).  Instead  of  the  low-pitched  classic  pedi- 
ments, there  appears  frequently  an  arched  cornice  enclosing  a 
sculptured  lunette.  Doors  and  windows  were  enclosed  in  richly 
carved  frames,  sometimes  arched  and  sometimes  square.  Fa- 


280 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


cades  were  flat  and  unbroken,  depending  mainly  for  effect  upon 
the  distribution  and  adornment  of  the  openings,  mouldings,  and 
cornices.  Internally  vaults  and  flat  ceilings  of  wood  and  plaster 
were  about  equally  common,  the  barrel  vault  and  dome  occurring 

far  more  frequently 
than  the  groined  vault. 
Many  of  the  ceilings  of 
this  period  are  of  re- 
markable richness  and 
beauty. 

THE  EARLY  RENAIS- 
SANCE IN  FLORENCE: 
THE  DUOMO.  In  the 
year  1417  a  public 
competition  was  held 
for  completing  the 
cathedral  of  Florence 
by  a  dome  over  the 
immense  octagon,  139 
feet  in  diameter.  Fi- 
ll ppo  Brunelleschi, 
sculptor  and  architect 

(1377-1446),  who  with  Donatello  had  journeyed  to  Rome  to  study 
there  the  masterworks  of  ancient  art,  after  demonstrating  the  in- 
adequacy of  all  the  solutions  proposed  by  the  competitors,  was 
finally  permitted  to  undertake  the  gigantic  task  according  to  his 
own  plans.  These  provided  for  an  octagonal  dome  in  two  shells, 
connected  by  eight  major  and  sixteen  minor  ribs,  and  crowned  by 
a  lantern  at  the  top  (Fig.  164).  This  wholly  original  conception, 
by  which  for  the  first  time  (outside  of  Moslem  art)  the  dome  was 
made  an  external  feature  fitly  terminating  in  the  light  forms  and 
upward  movement  of  a  lantern,  was  carried  out  between  the  years 
1420  and  1464.  Though  in  no  wise  an  imitation  of  Roman 
forms,  it  was  classic  in  its  spirit,  in  its  vastness  and  in  its  simplic- 


FIO.     163. — EARLY    RENAISSANCE    CAPITAL,    PAL. 
ZORZI,    VENICE. 


THE   EARLY    RENAISSANCE   IN    ITALY. 


28l 


ity  of  line,  and  was  made  possible  solely  by  Brunelleschi's 
studies  of  Roman  design  and  construction  (Fig.  165). 

OTHER  CHURCHES.  From  Brunelleschi's  designs  were  also 
erected  the  Pazzi  Chapel  in  the  cloister  of  Sta.  Croce,  a  rectangu- 
lar interior  with  a  dome  over  the  central  part,  and  preceded  by  a 
vestibule  with  a  richly  decorated  vault;  and  the  two  great 
churches  of  S.  Lorenzo  (1425)  and  S.  Spirito  (1433-1476,  Fig. 
1 66).  Both  of  these  were  in  reality  basilicas  with  transepts  and 
domical-vaulted  side  aisles.  The  central  aisles  were  covered 
with  flat  ceilings  and  a  low  dome  was  built  over  the  crossing.  All 
the  details  were  imitated  from  Roman  models,  and  yet  the  result 
was  something  entirely  new,  and  the  pendentives  and  domes  em- 
ployed by  Brunelleschi  were  Byzantine  rather  than  Roman.  It 
is  not  known  whence  he  derived 
them.  The  Old  Sacristy  of  S. 
Lorenzo  was  another  domical  de- 
sign of  great  beauty. 

From  this  time  on  the  new  style 
was  in  general  use  for  church  de- 
signs. L.  B.  Alberti  (1404-73), 
who  had  in  Rome  mastered  classic 
details  more  thoroughly  than 
Brunelleschi,  remodelled  the 
church  of  S.  Francesco  at  -Ri- 
mini with  Roman  pilasters  and 
arches,  and  with  engaged  orders 
in  the  facade,  which,  however,  was 
never  completed.  His  great  work 
was  the  church  of  S.  Andrea  at 

Mantua,  a  Latin  cross  in  plan,  with  a  dome  at  the  inter- 
section (the  present  high  dome  dating,  however,  only  from  the 
eighteenth  century)  and  a  facade  to  which  the  conception  of  a 
Roman  triumphal  arch  was  skilfully  adapted.  His  facade  of  in- 
crusted  marbles  for  the  church  of  S.  M.  Novella  at  Florence  was 


PIG.    164. SECTION   OP   DOME   OP 

DUOMO.    FLORENCE. 


282 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


a  less  successful  work,  though  its  flaring  consoles  over  the  side 
aisles  established  an  unfortunate  precedent  frequently  imitated 
in  later  churches. 

A  great  activity  in  church-building  marked  the  period  between 

1475  and  1490.  The 
plans  of  the  churches 
erected  about  this  time 
throughout  north  Italy 
display  an  interesting 
variety  of  arrangements, 
in  nearly  all  of  which  the 
dome  is  combined  with 
the  three-aisled  cruciform 
plan,  either  as  a  central 
feature  at  the  crossing  or 
as  a  domical  vault  over 
each  bay.  Bologna  and 
Ferrara  possess  a  number 
of  churches  of  this  kind. 
Occasionally  the  basilican 
arrangement  was  fol- 
lowed, with  columnar  ar- 
cades separating  the 
aisles.  More  often,  how- 
ever, the  pier-arches  were  of  the  Roman  type,  with  engaged 
columns  or  pilasters  between  them.  The  interiors,  presumably 
intended  to  receive  painted  decorations,  were  in  most  cases 
somewhat  bare  of  ornament,  pleasing  rather  by  happy  propor- 
tions and  effective  vaulting  or  rich  flat  ceilings,  panelled,  painted 
and  gilded,  than  by  elaborate  architectural  detail.  A  similar 
scantiness  of  ornament  is  to  be  remarked  in  the  exteriors,  ex- 
cepting the  facades,  which  were  sometimes  highly  ornate;  the 
doorways,  with  columns,  pediments,  sculpture  and  carving, 
receiving  especial  attention.  High  external  domes  did  not  come 


FIG.    165. EXTERIOR    OF    DOME    OF    DUOMO. 

PLOKENl  K. 


THE    EARLY    RENAISSANCE    IN    ITALY. 


283 


into  general  use  until  the  next  period.  In  Milan,  Pavia,  and 
some  other  Lombard  cities,  the  internal  cupola  over  the  cross- 
ing was,  however,  covered  externally  by  a  lofty  structure  in 
diminishing  stages,  like  that  of  the  Certosa  at  Pavia  (Fig.  157), 
or  that  erected  by  Bramante  for  the  church  of  S.  M.  delle  Grazie 
at  Milan.  The  church  plans  of  this  period  show  the  greatest 
variety,  though  nearly  all  were  adorned  with  a  central  dome. 
Among  the  most  successful  were  some  of  the  smaller  churches, 
of  the  Greek  cross  type,  with  four  short  barrel-vaulted  arms 
projecting  from  a  central  area  covered  by  a  dome  of  moderate 
height  on  pcndentives. 
At  Prato,  the  church 
of  the  Madonna  delle 
Career!  (1495-1516), 
by  Ginliano  da  S. 
Gallo,  with  its  unfin- 
ished exterior  of  white 
marble,  its  simple  and 
dignified  lines,  and  in- 
ternal embellishments 
in  della-Robbia  ware, 
is  one  of  the  master- 
pieces of  this  type, 
which  was  an  essen- 
tially new  architectural 
conception,  although 
never  developed  to  its 
full  monumental  pos- 
sibilities. 

In  the  designing  of 

chapels  and  oratories  the  architects  of  the  early  Renaissance 
attained  conspicuous  success,  these  edifices  presenting  fewer 
structural  limitations  and  being  more  purely  decorative  in  char- 
acter than  the  larger  churches.  Such  facades  as  that  of  S.  Ber- 


MO.     |66.— INTERIOR    HI'    S.    SPIKITO.    FI.OKKNCK. 


284 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


nardino  at  Perugia  and  of  the  Frati  di  S.  Spirito  at  Bologna 
are  among  the  most  delightful  products  of  the  decorative  fancy 
of  the  fifteenth  century. 

FLORENTINE  PALACES.  The  architects  of  this  period  at- 
tained conspicuous  success  in  palace-architecture.  The  Ric- 
cardi  palace  in  Florence  (1430)  marks  the  first  step  cf  the  Renais- 
sance in  this  direction.  It  was  built  for  the  great  Cosimo  di 

Medici  by  Michelozzi 
(I397~I473)>  a  con- 
temporary of  Brunel- 
leschi  and  Alberti,  and 
a  man  of  great  talent. 
Its  imposing  rectangu- 
lar facade,  with  widely 
spaced  mullioned  win- 
dows in  two  stories 
over  a  massive  base- 
ment, is  crowned  with 
a  classic  cornice  of 
unusual  and  almost 
excessive  size.  In  spite 
of  the  bold  and  for- 
tress-like character  of 
the  rusticated  masonry 
of  this  and  similar  fa- 
cades, and  their  mediaeval  appearance  to  modern  eyes,  they 
marked  a  revolution  in  style  and  established  a  type  frequently 
imitated  in  later  years.  The  courtyard,  in  contrast  with  this 
stern  exterior,  appears  light  and  cheerful  (Fig.  167).  Its  wall 
is  carried  on  round  arches  borne  by  columns  with  Corinthi- 
anesque  capitals,  and  the  arcade  is  enriched  with  sculptured 
medallions.  The  Pitti  Palace,  by  Brunelleschi  (1435),*  em' 

*  Only  the  central  portion  of  the  palace  belongs  to  Brunelleschi's 
time.  It  was  successively  enlarged  in  the  i6th  and  i7th  centuries. 


FIG.    167. COVKTYAKD    OP    KICCARDI    PALACE, 

FLORENCE. 


THE   EARLY    RENAISSANCE   IN   ITALY. 


285 


bodies  the  same  ideas  on  a  more  colossal  scale,  but  lacks  the 
grace  of  an  adequate  cornice.  A  lighter  and  more  ornate  style 
appeared  in  1460  in  the  P.  Rucellai,  by  Alberti,  in  which  for 
the  first  time  classical  pilasters  in  superposed  stages  were  ap- 
plied to  a  street  facade.  To  avoid  the  dilemma  of  either  insuf- 
ficiently crowning  the  edifice  or  making  the  cornice  too  heavy 
for  the  upper  range  of  pilasters,  Alberti  made  use  of  brackets, 
occupying  the  width  of  the  upper  frieze,  and  converting  the 
whole  upper  entablature  into  a  cornice.  But  this  compromise 
was  not  quite  success- 
ful, and  it  remained 
for  later  architects  in 
Venice,  Verona,  and 
Rome  to  work  out 
more  satisfactory 
methods  of  applying 
the  orders  to  many- 
storied  palace  facades. 
In  the  great  P.  Strozzi 
(Fig.  1 68),  erected  in 
1490  by  Benedetto  da 
Majano  and  Cronaca, 

the  architects  reverted  to  the  earlier  type  of  the  P.  Riccardi, 
treating  it  with  greater  refinement  and  producing  one  of  the 
noblest  palaces  of  Italy. 

COURTYARDS;  ARCADES.  These  palaces  were  all  built 
around  interior  courts,  whose  walls  rested  on  columnar  arcades, 
as  in  the  P.  Riccardi  (Fig.  167).  The  origin  of  these  arcades  may 
be  found  in  the  arcaded  cloisters  of  mediaeval  monastic  churches, 
which  often  suggest  classic  models,  as  in  those  of  St.  Paul-beyond- 
the- Walls  and  St.  John  Lateran  at  Rome.  Brunelleschi  not  only 
introduced  columnar  arcades  into  a  number  of  cloisters  and  pal- 
ace courts,  but  also  used  them  effectively  as  exterior  features  in 
the  Loggia  S.  Paolo  and  the  Foundling  Hospital  (Ospedale  degli 


. 

SL  ll  n 

•-*'-*  •  • 

_vLi. 

I7 

•iij/jj 
t  H  H 

•   i  ir 

STR07/I  PAI.ACK,  PLOKKN'CK. 


286  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

Innocent!)  at  Florence.  The  chief  drawback  in  these  light  ar- 
cades was  their  inability  to  withstand  the  thrust  of  the  vaulting 
over  the  space  behind  them,  and  the  consequent  recourse  to  iron 
tie-rods  where  vaulting  was  used.  The  Italians,  however, 
seemed  to  care  little  about  this  disfigurement. 

MINOR  WORKS.  The  details  of  the  new  style  were  developed 
quite  as  rapidly  in  purely  decorative  works  as  in  monumental 
buildings.  Altars,  mural  monuments,  tabernacles,  pulpits  and 
ciboria  alTorded  scope  for  the  genius  of  the  most  distinguished 
artists.  Among  those  who  were  specially  celebrated  in  works  of 
this  kind  should  be  named  Lucca  dclla  Robbia  (1400-82)  and  his 
successors,  Mino  da  Flcsole  (1431-84)  and  Benedetto  da  Majano 
(1442-97).  Possessed  of  a  wonderful  fertility  of  invention,  they 
and  their  pupils  multiplied  their  works  in  extraordinary  number 
and  variety,  not  only  throughout  North  Italy,  but  also  in  Rome 
and  Naples.  Among  the  most  famous  examples  of  this  branch  of 
design  may  be  mentioned  a  pulpit  in  Sta.  Croce  by  B.  da  Majano; 
a  terra-cotta  fountain  in  the  sacristy  of  S.  M.  Novella,  by  the  della 
Robbias;  the  Marsupini  tomb  in  Sta.  Croce,  by  Desiderio  da 
Settignano  (all  in  Florence);  the  della  Rovere  tomb  in  S.  M.  del 
Popolo,  Rome,  by  Mino  da  Fiesole,  and  in  the  Cathedral  at  Lucca 
the  Noceto  tomb  and  the  Tempietto,  by  Matteo  Civitali.  It  was 
in  works  of  this  character  that  the  Renaissance  oftenest  made  its 
first  appearance  in  a  new  centre,  as  was  the  case  in  Sienna,  Pisa, 
Lucca,  Naples,  etc. 

NORTH  ITALY.  Between  1450  and  1490  the  Renaissance 
presented  in  Sienna,  in  a  number  of  important  palaces,  a  sharp 
contrast  to  the  prevalent  Gothic  style  of  that  city.  The  P.  del 
Governo  (formerly  Piccolomini),  in  the  style  of  the  Riccardi  at 
Florence,  was  built  1469,  and  theSpannocchi  Palace  in  1470.  In 
1463  Ant.  Fcdcriglii  built  there  the  Loggia  del  Papa.  About  the 
same  time  Bernardo  di  Lorenzo  was  building  for  Pope  Pius  II. 
(/Eneas  Sylvius  Piccolomini)  an  entirely  new  city,  Pienza,  with  a 
cathedral,  arvhbishop's  palace,  town  hall  and  Papal  residence 


THE   EARLY    RENAISSANCE    IX   ITALY. 


287 


(the  P.  Piccolomini,  an  obvious  copy  of  the  P.  Rucellai  in  I-'lor- 
ence),  which  are  interesting  if  not  strikingly  original  works.  Pisa 
possesses  few  early  . 
Renaissance  struc- 
tures, owing  to  the 
utter  prostration  of  her 
fortunes  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  and  the  domi- 
nance of  Pisan  Gothic 
traditions.  In  Lucca, 
besides  a  wealth  of 
minor  monuments 
(largely  the  work  of 
Matteo  Civitali,  1435- 
1501)  in  various 
churches,  a  number  of 
palaces  date  from  this 
period,  the  most  im- 
|>ortant  being  the  P. 
Pretorio  and  P.  Ber- 
nardini.  To  Milan  the 
Renaissance  was  car- 
ried by  the  Florentine 
masters  Michelozzi  and 
Filarete,  to  whom  are 
respectively  due  the 
Portinari  Chapel  in 
S.  Kustorgio  (1462) 
and  the  earlier  part 
of  the  great  Ospedale 
Maggiore  (1457).  In  the  latter,  an  edifice  of  brick  with  terra- 
cotta enrichments,  the  windows  were  Gothic  in  outline — an 
unusual  mixture  of  styles,  even  in  Italy.  The  munificence  of 
the  Sforzas,  the  hereditary  tyrants  of  the  province,  embellished 


rfx>. — TOMB 


i'iini«i  in  \ocKn 


288  HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

the  semi-Gothic  Certosa  of  Pavia  (see  p.  267)  with  a  new 
marble  facade,  begun  1476  or  1491,  which  in  its  fanciful  and 
exuberant  decoration,  and  the  small  scale  of  its  parts,  belongs 
properly  to  the  early  Renaissance.  Exquisitely  beautiful  in  de- 
tail, it  resembles  rather  a  magnified  altar-piece  than  a  work  of 
architecture,  properly  speaking.  Bologna  and  Ferrara  developed 
somewhat  late  in  the  century  a  strong  local  school  of  architecture, 
remarkable  especially  for  the  beauty  of  its  courtyards,  its  grace- 
ful street  arcades,  and  its  artistic  treatment  of  brick  and  terra- 
cotta (P.  Bevilacqua,  P.  Fava,  at  Bologna;  P.  Scrofa,  P. 
Roverella,  at  Ferrara).  About  the  same  time  palaces  with 
interior  arcades  and  details  in  the  new  style  were  erected  in 
Verona,  Vicenza,  Mantua,  and  other  cities. 

VENICE.  In  this  city  of  merchant  princes  and  a  wealthy 
bourgeoisie,  the  architecture  of  the  Renaissance  took  on  a  new 
aspect  of  splendor  and  display.  It  was  late  in  appearing,  the 
Gothic  style  with  its  tinge  of  Byzantine  decorative  traditions 
having  here  developed  into  a  style  well  suited  to  the  needs  of  a 
rich  and  relatively  tranquil  community.  These  traditions  the 
architects  of  the  new  style  appropriated  in  a  measure,  as  in  the 
marble  incrustations  of  the  exquisite  little  church  of  S.  M.  dei 
Miracoli  (1480-89),  and  the  facade  of  the  Scuola  di  S.  Marco 
(1485-1533),  both  by  Pictro  Lombardo.  Nowhere  else,  unless  on 
the  contemporary  facade  of  the  Certosa  at  Pavia,  were  marble 
inlays  and  delicate  carving,  combined  with  a  framework  of  thin 
pilasters,  finely  profiled  entablatures  and  arched  pediments,  so 
lavishly  bestowed  upon  the  street  fronts  of  churches  and  palaces. 
The  family  of  the  Lombardl  (Martino,  his  sons  Moro  and  Pietro, 
and  grandsons  Antonio  and  Tullio),  with  Ant.  Kizzo  (also  called 
Riccio  and  Krcgno)  and  Bart.  BUOH,  were  the  leaders  in  the 
architectural  Renaissance  of  this  period,  and  to  them  Venice 
owes  her  choicest  masterpieces  in  the  new  style.  Its  first 
appearance  is  noted  in  the  later  portions  of  the  church  of 
S.  Zaccaria  (1456-1515),  partly  Gothic  internally,  with  a 


THE    EARLY    RENAISSANCE   IN    ITALY. 


289 


facade  whose  semicircular  pediment  and  small  decorative  ar- 
cades show  a  somewhat  timid  but  interesting  application  of  clas- 
sic details.  In  this  church,  and  still  more  so  in  S.  Giobbe  (1451- 
93)  and  the  Miracoli  above  mentioned,  the  decorative  element 
predominates  throughout.  It  is  hard  to  imagine  details  more 
graceful  in  design,  more  effective  in  the  swing  of  their  movement, 


TIG.    170. — VEND'^AMIN'I    PALACE,    VENICE. 

or  more  delicate  in  execution  than  the  mouldings,  reliefs,  wreaths, 
scrolls,  and  capitals  one  encounters  in  these  buildings.  Yet  in 
structural  interest,  in  scale  and  breadth  of  planning,  these  early 
Renaissance  Venetian  buildings  hold  a  relatively  inferior  rank. 

PALACES.  The  great  Court  of  the  Doge's  Palace,  begun 
1483  by  Ant-.  Rizzo,  belongs  only  in  part  to  the  first  period.  It 
shows,  however,  the  lack  of  constructive  principle  and  of  largeness 
of  composition  just  mentioned,  but  its  decorative  effect  and  pic- 
turesque variety  elicit  almost  universal  admiration.  Like  the 
neighboring  facade  of  St.  Mark's,  it  violates  nearly  every  principle 


290  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

of  correct  composition,  and  yet  in  a  measure  atones  for  this  capi- 
tal defect  by  its  charm  of  detail.  Far  more  satisfactory  from  the 
purely  architectural  point  of  view  is  the  facade  of  the  P.  Ven- 
dramini  (Vendramin-Calergi),byPietroLombardo  (1481).  The 
simple,  stately  lines  of  its  composition,  the  dignity  of  its  broad 
arched  and  mullioned  windows,  separated  by  engaged  columns — 
the  earliest  example  in  Venice  of  this  feature,  and  one  of  the  earli- 
est in  Italy — its  well-proportioned  basement  and  upper  stories, 
crowned  by  an  adequate  but  somewhat  heavy  entablature,  make 
this  one  of  the  finest  palaces  in  Italy  (Fig.  1 70).  It  established  a 
type  of  large-windowed,  vigorously  modelled  facades  which  later 
architects  developed,  but  hardly  surpassed.  In  the  smaller  con- 
temporary P.  Uario,  another  type  appears,  better  suited  for 
small  buildings,  depending  for  effect  mainly  upon  well-ordered 
openings  and  incrusted  panelling  of  colored  marble. 

ROME.  Internal  disorders  and  the  long  exile  of  the  popes  had 
by  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century  reduced  Rome  to  utter  insig- 
nificance. Not  until  the  second  half  of  the  fifteenth  century  did 
returning  prosperity  and  wealth  afford  the  Renaissance  its  oppor- 
tunity in  the  Eternal  City.  Pope  Nicholas  V.  had,  indeed,  begun 
the  rebuilding  of  St.  Peter's  from  designs  by  B.  Rossellini,  in  1450, 
but  the  project  lapsed  shortly  after  with  the  death  of  the  pope. 
The  earliest  Renaissance  building  in  Rome  was  the  P.di  Venezia, 
begun  in  1455,  together  with  the  adjoining  porch  of  S.  Marco.  In 
this  palace  and  the  adjoining  unfinished  Palazzetto  we  find  the 
influence  of  the  old  Roman  monuments  clearly  manifested  in  the 
court  arcades,  built  like  those  of  the  Colosseum,  with  superposed 
stages  of  massive  piers  and  engaged  columns  carrying  entabla- 
tures. The  proportions  are  awkward,  the  details  coarse;  but  the 
spirit  of  Roman  classicism  is  here  seen  in  the  germ.  The  exterior 
of  this  palace  is,  however,  still  media-vat  in  spirit.  The  archi- 
tects are  unknown;  Giidiano  da  Majano  (1432-90),  Giaconw  di 
Picfrasanta,  and  ,\fro  del  C'apr'mo  (14^0-1501)  arc  known  to 
have  worked  upon  it,  but  it  is  not  certain  in  what  capacity. 


THE   EARLY    RENAISSANCE   IN   ITALY.  2QI 

The  new  style,  reaching,  and  in  time  overcoming,  the  con- 
servatism of  the  Church,  overthrew  the  old  basilican  traditions. 
In  S.  Agostino  (1479-83),  by  Pietrasanta,  and  S.  M.  del  Popolo, 
by  Pintelli  (?),  piers  with  pilasters  or  half-columns  and  massive 
arches  separate  the  aisles,  and  the  crossing  is  crowned  with  a 
dome.  To  the  same  period  belong  the  Sistine  chapel  and  parts 
of  the  Vatican  palace,  but  the  interest  of  these  lies  rather  in  their 
later  decorations  than  in  their  somewhat  scanty  architectural 
merit.  The  architectural  renewal  of  Rome,  thus  begun, 
reached  its  culmination  in  the  following  period. 

OTHER  MONUMENTS.  The  complete  enumeration  of  even 
the  most  important  Early  Renaissance  monuments  of  Italy  is  im- 
possible within  our  limits.  Two  or  three  only  can  here  be  singled 
out  as  suggesting  types.  Among  town  halls  of  this  period  the 
first  place  belongs  to  the  P.  del  Consiglio  at  Verona,  by  Fra 
Giocondo  (1435-1515).  In  this  beautiful  edifice  the  facade 
consists  of  a  light  and  graceful  arcade  supporting  a  wall  pierced 
with  four  windows,  and  covered  with  elaborate  frescoed  ara- 
besques (recently  restored).  Its  unfortunate  division  by  pilasters 
into  four  bays,  with  a  pier  in  the  centre,  is  a  blemish  avoided 
in  the  contemporary  P.  del  Consiglio  at  Padua.  The  Ducal 
Palace  at  Urbino,  by  Luciano  da  Laurano  (1468),  is  note- 
worthy for  its  fine  arcaded  court,  and  was  highly  famed  in  its 
day.  At  Brescia  S.  M.  dei  Miracoli  is  a  remarkable  example 
of  a  cruciform  domical  church  dating  from  the  close  of  this 
period,  and  is  especially  celebrated  for  the  exuberant  decoration 
of  its  porch  and  its  elaborate  detail.  Tew  campaniles  were 
built  in  this  period;  the  best  of  them  arc  at  Venice.  Naples 
possesses  several  interesting  Karly  Renaissance  monuments, 
chief  among  which  are  the  Porta  Capuana  (1484),  by  Ginl.  da 
Majano,  the  triumphal  Arch  of  Alphonso  of  Arragon,  by  Pictro 
di  Martina,  and  the  Cuomo  and  Gravina  palaces,  the  latter  by 
Gab.  (? . \gnolo.  Naples  is  also  rich  in  minor  works  of  the  Karly 
Renaissance,  in  which  it  ranks  with  Florence,  Venice,  and  Rome. 


CHAPTER   XXL 

RENAISSANCE    ARCHITECTURE    IN    ITALY— Continued. 

THE  ADVANCED   RENAISSANCE   AND   DECLINE. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED:  As  before,  Burckhardt,  Cicognara, 
Fergusson,  Paltistre.  Also,  Gauthier,  Les  plus  beany  edifices  dc 
Genes.  Geymiiller,  Les  projets  primitijs  pour  la  basilique  de  St. 
Pierre  de  Rome.  Gurlitt,  Geschichte  dcs  Barockstiles  in  Italien. 
Laspeyres,  Die  Kirchen  der  Renaissance  in  Mittel  Ilalien.  Leta- 
rouilly,  Edifices  de  Rome  modernc;  Le  Vatican.  Palladio,  The 
Works  of  A.  Palladio.  Strack,  Die  Central-  tind  Kuppclkirchcn 
dcr  Renaissance  in  It  alien.  Also,  for  St.  Peter's  and  domed 
churches,  consult  Gosset,  Les  coupoles  d'oricnt  ct  d'occident,  and 
Isabelle,  Les  edifices  circulaires  ct  les  domes. 

CHARACTER   OF   THE   ADVANCED   RENAISSANCE.       It  was 

inevitable  that  the  study  and  imitation  of  Roman  architecture 
should  lead  to  an  increasingly  literal  rendering  of  classic  details 
and  a  closer  copying  of  antique  compositions.  Toward  the  close 
of  the  fifteenth  century  the  symptoms  began  to  multiply  of  the 
approaching  reign  of  formal  classicism.  Correctness  in  the  repro- 
duction of  old  Roman  forms  came  to  be  highly  esteemed,  and  in 
the  following  period  the  orders  became  the  principal  resource  of 
the  architect.  During  the  so-called  Cinquecento,  that  is,  from 
the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century  to  nearly  or  quite  1550,  architec- 
ture still  retained  much  of  the  freedom  and  refinement  of  the 
Quattrocento.  There  was  meanwhile  a  notable  advance  in  dig- 
nity and  amplitude  of  design,  especially  in  the  internal  distribu- 
tion of  buildings.  Externally  the  orders  were  freely  used  as  sub- 
ordinate features  in  the  decoration  of  doors  and  windows,  and  in 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE   IN    ITALY.          293 

court  arcades  of  the  Roman  type.  The  lantern-crowned  dome 
upon  a  high  drum  was  developed  into  one  of  the  noblest  of  archi- 
tectural forms.  Great  attention  was  bestowed  upon  all  subordi- 
nate features;  doors  and  windows  were  treated  with  frames  and 
pediments  of  extreme  elegance  and  refinement;  all  the  cornices 
and  mouldings  were  proportioned  and  profiled  with  the  utmost 
care,  and  the  balustrade  was  elaborated  into  a  feature  at  once 
useful  and  highly  ornate.  Interior  decoration  was  t/en  more 
splendid  than  before,  if  somewhat  less  delicate  and  subtle;  relief 
enrichments  in  stucco  were  used  with  admirable  effect,  and  the 
greatest  artists  exercised  their  talents  in  the  painting  of  vaults  and 
ceilings,  as  in  P.  del  Te  at  Mantua,  by  Giulio  Romano  (1492- 
1546),  and  the  Sistine  Chapel  at  Rome,  by  Michael  Angelo.  This 
period  is  distinguished  by  an  exceptional  number  of  great  archi- 
tects and  buildings.  It  was  ushered  in  by  Bramante  Lazzari,  of 
Urbino  (1444-1514),  and  closed  during  the  career  of  Michael 
Angelo  Buonarotti  (1475-1564);  two  names  worthy  to  rank  with 
that  of  Brunelleschi.  Inferior  only  to  these  in  architectural 
genius  were  Raphael  (1483-1520),  Baldassare  Pcruzzi  (1481- 
1536),  Antonio  da  San  Gallo  the  Younger  (1485-1546),  and  G. 
Barozzi  da  Vignola  (1507-1572),  in  Rome;  Giacopo  Tatti  San- 
soi'ino  (1479-1570),  in  Venice,  and  others  almost  equally  illustri- 
ous. This  period  witnessed  the  erection  of  an  extraordinary 
series  of  palaces,  villas,  and  churches,  the  beginning  and  much  of 
the  construction  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  and  a  complete  transfor- 
mation in  the  aspect  of  that  city. 

BRAMANTE'S  WORKS.  While  precise  time  limits  cannot  be- 
set to  architectural  styles,  it  is  not  irrational  to  date  this  period 
from  the  maturing  of  Bramante's  genius.  While  his  earlier 
works  in  Milan  belong  to  the  Quattrocento  (S.  M.  delle  (ira/ie, 
the  sacristy  of  San  Satiro,  the  extension  of  the  (ireat  Hospital), 
his  later  designs  show  the  (lassie  tendency  very  dearly.  The 
charming  Tempietto  in  the  court  of  S.  Pietro  in  Montorio  at 
Rome,  a  circular  temple-like  chapel  (150.'),  is  composed  of  purely 


2Q4  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

classic  elements,  although  it  cannot  be  said  to  be  a  copy  of  any 
known  Roman  edifice.  In  the  P.Giraud  (Fig.  171)  and  the  great 
Cancelleria  Palace,  pilasters  appear  in  the  external  composition, 
and  all  the  details  of  doors  and  windows  betray  the  results  of 
classic  study,  as  well  as  the  refined  taste  of  their  designer.*  The 
beautiful  courtyard  of  the  Cancelleria  combines  the  Florentine 
system  of  arches  on  columns  with  the  Roman  system  of  super- 
posed arcades  independent  of  the  court  wall.  In  1506  Bramante 
began  the  rebuilding  of  St.  Peter's  for  Julius  II.  (see  p.  298)  and 

*  It  is  now  denied  by  many  investigators  that  either  the  Can- 
celleria or  the  Giraud  palace  is  the  work  of  Bramante,  or  any  one 
of  two  or  three  smaller  houses  in  Rome  showing  a  somewhat 
similar  architectural  treatment.  The  date  1495  carved  on  a  frieze 
of  the  Cancelleria  palace  is  thought  to  forbid  its  attribution  to 
Bramante,  who  is  not  known  to  have  come  to  Rome  till  1500;  and 
there  is  a  lack  of  positive  evidence  of  his  authorship  of  the  Giraud 
palace  and  of  the  other  houses  which  seem  to  be  by  the  same  band. 
The  resemblance  in  style  between  this  group  of  buildings  and  his 
acknowledged  work  is  considered  by  some  insufficient  to  identify 
them  as  Bramante's. 

It  must  be  remarked,  on  the  other  band,  that  this  notable  group 
of  works,  stamped  with  the  marks  and  even  the  mannerisms  of  a 
strong  personality,  reveal  an  ability  amounting  to  genius,  and  by 
no  means  unworthy  of  Bramante.  It  is  almost  inconceivable  that 
they  should  have  been  designed  by  a  mere  beginner  previously 
unknown  and  forgotten  soon  after.  Those  who  deny  the  attribu- 
tion to  Bramante  have  thus  far  been  unable  to  find  another  name 
worthy  of  the  credit  of  these  works,  no  two  of  them  having  agreed 
on  any  one  person.  None  of  the  names  suggested  seems  to  fit  the 
conditions  even  as  well  as  Bramante's;  while  to  some  critics  the 
comparison  of  these  works  with  Bramante's  Milanese  work  on 
the  one  hand  and  his  great  Court  of  the  Belvedere  in  the  Vatican 
on  the  other,  yields  conclusions  quite  opposed  to  those  of  the  ad- 
vocates of  another  authorship  than  Bramante's. 

The  controversy  must  be  considered  as  still  open,  and  it  will 
probably  so  remain  until  settled  by  the  discovery  of  new  and 
undisputable  evidence. 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE   IN    ITALY. 


295 


the  construction  of  a  new  and  imposing  papal  palace  adjoining  it 
on  the  Vatican  hill.  Of  this  colossal  group  of  edifices,  commonly 
known  as  the  Vatican,  he  executed  the  greater  Belvedere  court 
(afterward  divided  in  two  by  the  Library  and  the  Braccio  Nuovo), 
the  lesser  octagonal  court  of  the  Belvedere,  and  the  court  of  San 
Damaso,  with  its  ar- 
cades afterward 
frescoed  by  Raphael 
and  his  school.  Be- 
sides these,  the 
cloister  of  S.  M.  della 
Pace,  and  many 
other  works  in  and 
out  of  Rome,  reveal 
the  impress  of  Bra- 
mante's  genius,  alike 
in  their  admirable 
plans  and  in  the  har- 
mony and  beauty  of 
their  details. 

FLORENTINE  PALACES.  The  P.  Riccardi  long  remained  the 
accepted  type  of  palace  in  Florence.  As  we  have  seen,  it  was 
imitated  in  the  Strozzi  palace,  as  late  as  1489,  with  greater  perfec- 
tion of  detail,  but  with  no  radical  change  of  conception.  In  the 
P.  Gondi,  however,  begun  in  the  following  year  by  Ginlianoda 
San  Gallo  (1445-1516),  a  more  pronounced  classic  spirit  appears, 
especially  in  the  court  and  the  interior  design.  Early  in  the  six- 
teenth century  classic  columns  and  pediments  began  to  be  used  as 
decorations  for  doors  and  windows;  the  rustication  was  confined 
to  basements  and  corner-quoins,  and  niches,  loggias,  and  porches 
gave  variety  of  light  and  shade  to  the  fa<;ades  (P.  Bartolini,  by 
Baccio  a" Agnali);  P.  Larderel,  1515,  by  Dosio;  P.  Guadagni, 
by  Cronaca;  P.  Pandolfini,  1518,  attributed  to  Raphael).  In 
the  P.  Serristori,  by  Baccio  d'Agnolo  (1510),  pilasters  were  ap- 


FIG.  171. FACADE  OF  THE  GIKAUU  PALACE,  ROME. 


296 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


plied  to  the  composition  of  the  facade,  but  this  example  was  not 
often  followed  in  Florence. 

ROMAN  PALACES.  These  followed  a  different  type.  They 
were  usually  of  great  size,  and  built  around  ample  courts  with 
arcades  of  classic  model  in  two  or  three  stories.  The  broad  street 
facade  in  three  stories  with  an  attic  or  mezzanine  was  crowned 
with  a  rich  cornice.  The  orders  were  sparingly  used  externally 
and  effect  was  sought  principally  in  the  careful  proportioning  of 
the  stories,  in  the  form  and  distribution  of  the  square-headed  and 
arched  openings,  and  in  the  design  of  mouldings,  string-courses, 
cornices,  and  other  details.  The  piano  nobile,  or  first  story  above 
the  basement,  was  given  up  to  suites  of  sumptuous  reception- 
rooms  and  halls,  with  magnificent  ceilings  and  frescoes  by  the 
great  painters  of  the  day,  while  antique  statues  and  reliefs  adorned 
the  courts,  vestibules,  and  niches  of  these  princely  dwellings. 

The  Massimi  palace,  by  Pe- 
ruzzi,  is  an  interesting  example 
of  this  type.  The  Vatican, 
Cancelleria,  and  Giraud  pal- 
aces have  already  been  men- 
tioned; other  notable  palaces 
are  the  Palma  (1506)  and 
Sacchetti  (1540),  by  A.  da  San 
Gallo  the  Younger;  the  Far- 
nesina,  by  Peruzzi,  with  cele- 
brated fresco  decorations 
designed  by  Raphael;  and  the 
Lante  (1520)  and  Altemps 
(1530),  by  Peruzzi.  But  the 
noblest  creation  of  this  period 
was  the 

FARNESE  PALACE,  by  many  esteemed  the  finest  in  Italy.  It 
was  begun  in  1530  for  Alex.  Karnese  (Paul  III.)  by  A.  da  San 
Gallo  the  Younger,  with  Vignola's  collaboration.  The  simple 


VII',.     172. PLAN    (IF    FAKNESE    PALAC 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE   IN    ITALY.          297 


but  admirable  plan  is  shown  in  Fig.  172,  and  the  courtyard,  the 
most  imposing  in  Italy,  in  Fig.  173.     The  exterior  is  monoto- 
nous, but  the  noble  cornice  by  Michael  Angelo  measurably  re- 
deems   this    defect.     The   fine 
vaulted    columnar    entrance 
vestibule,    the    court    and    the 
salons,   make   up   an   ensemble 
worthy  of  the  great   architects 
who  designed   it.     The   loggia 
toward  the  river  was  added  by 
(Jiacomo  della  Porta  in  1580. 

VILLAS.  The  Italian  villa 
of  this  pleasure-loving  period 
afforded  full  scope  for  the 
most  playful  fancies  of  the 
architect,  decorator,  and  land- 
scape gardener.  It  comprised 
usually  a  dwelling,  a  casino  or 
amusement-house,  and  many 
minor  edifices,  summer-houses, 

arcades,  etc.,  disposed  in  extensive  grounds  laid  out  with 
terraces,  cascades,  and  shadexl  alleys.  The  style  was  graceful, 
sometimes  trivial,  but  almost  always  pleasing,  making  free 
use  of  stucco  enrichments,  both  internally  and  externally, 
with  abundance  of  gilding  and  frescoing.  The  Villa  Madama 
(1516),  by  Raphael,  with  stucco-decorations  by  Giulio  Romano, 
though  incomplete  and  now  dilapidated,  is  a  noted  example  of  the 
style.  More  complete,  the  Villa  of  Pope  Julius,  by  Yiirnola 
(1550),  belongs  by  its  purity  of  style  to  this  period;  its  facade  well 
exemplifies  the  simplicity,  dignity,  and  line-  proportions  of  this 
master's  work.  In  addition  to  these  Roman  villas  may  be  men- 
tioned the  V.  Medici  (1540,  \ty.lnnilnilc  /.//>/>/;  now  the  French 
Academy  of  Rome);  the  Casino  del  Papa  (or  Villa  Pia)  in  the 
Vatican  Gardens,  by  1'irro  Ligorio  (1500);  the  V.  Lante,  near 


PIG.     173. ANOLK    OP   COt-KT   OP 

PAKXBSK    PALACE,    HOME. 


298  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

Viterbo,  and  the  V.  d'Este,  at  Tivoli,  as  displaying  among  almost 
countless  others  the  Italian  skill  in  combining  architecture  and 
gardening. 

CHURCHES  AND  CHAPELS.  This  period  witnessed  the  build- 
ing of  a  few  churches  of  the  first  rank,  but  it  was  especially  prolific 
in  memorial,  votive,  and  sepulchral  chapels  added  to  churches 
already  existing,  like  the  Chigi  Chapel  of  S.  M.  del  Popolo,  by 
Raphael.  The  earlier  churches  of  this  period  generally  followed 
antecedent  types,  with  the  dome  as  the  central  feature  dominating 
a  cruciform  plan,  and  simple,  unostentatious  and  sometimes  unin- 
teresting exteriors.  Among  them  may  be  mentioned:  at  Pistoia, 
S.  M.  del  Letto  and  S.  M.  dell'  Umilta,  the  latter  a  fine  domical 
rotunda  by  Ventura  Vitoni  (1509),  with  an  imposing  vestibule;  at 
Venice,  S.  Salvatore,  by  Tullio  Lombardo  (1530),  an  admirable 
edifice  with  alternating  domical  and  barrel-vaulted  bays;  S.Gior- 
gio del  Grechi  (1536),  by  Sansovino,  and  S.  M.  Formosa;  at 
Todi,  the  Madonna  della  Cdnsolazione  (1508-1606),  by  Cola  da 
Caprarola,  a  charming  design  with  a  high  dome  and  four  apses;  * 
at  Montefiascone,  the  Madonna  delle  Grazie,  by  Sammkhele 
(1523),  besides  several  churches  at  Bologna,  Ferrara,  Prato,  Si- 
enna, and  Rome  of  almost  or  quite  equal  interest.  In  these 
churches  one  may  trace  the  development  of  the  dome  as  an  ex- 
ternal feature,  while  in  S.  Biagio,  at  Montepulciano,  the  effort 
was  made  by  Ant.  da  San  Gallo  the  Elder  (1455-1534)  to  combine 
with  it  the  contrasting  lines  of  two  campaniles,  of  which,  however, 
but  one  was  completed. 

ST.  PETER'S.  The  culmination  of  Renaissance  church  archi- 
tecture was  reached  in  St.  Peter's,  at  Rome.  The  original  pro- 
ject of  Nicholas  V.  having  lapsed  with  his  death,  it  was  the  inten- 
tion of  Julius  II.  to  erect  on  the  same  site  a  stupendous  domical 
church  over  the  monument  he  had  ordered  of  Michael  Angelo. 
The  design  of  Bramante,  who  began  its  erection  in  1506,  com- 

*  Often  attributed  to  Bramante,  who  may  possibly  have  bad  a 
band  in  its  design. 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE   IN   ITALY. 


299 


prised  a  Greek  cross  with  apsidal  arms,  the  four  angles  occupied 
by  domical  chapels  and  loggias  within  a  square  outline  (Fig.  174). 
The  too  hasty  execution  of  this  noble  design  led  to  the  collapse  of 
two  of  the  arches  under  the  dome,  and  to  long  delays  after  Bra- 
mante's  death  in  1514. 
Raphael,  Giuliano  da  San 
Gallo,  Peruzzi,  and  A.  da 
San  Gallo  the  Younger 
successively  supervised 
the  works  under  the 
popes  from  Leo  X.  to 
Paul  III.,  and  devised  a 
vast  number  of  plans  for 
its  completion.  Most  of 
these  involved  funda- 
mental alterations  of  the 
original  scheme,  and  were 
motived  by  the  aban- 
donment of  the  proposed 

monument  of  Julius  II.;  a  church,  and  not  a  mausoleum, 
being  required.  In  1546  Michael  Angelo  was  assigned  by  Paul 
III.  to  the  works,  and  gave  final  form  to  the  general  design  in 
a  simplified  version  of  Bramante's  plan  with  more  massive 
supports,  a  square  east  front*  with  a  portico  for  the  chief  en- 
trance, and  the  unrivalled  Dome  which  is  its  most  striking 
feature.  This  dome,  slightly  altered  and  improved  in  curvature 
by  della  Porta  after  M.  Angelo's  death  in  1564,  was  completed 
by  D.  Fontana  in  1604.  It  is  the  most  majestic  creation  of  the 
Renaissance,  and  one  of  the  greatest  architectural  conceptions 
of  all  history.  It  measures  140  feet  in  internal  diameter,  and 
with  its  two  shells  rises  from  a  lofty  drum,  buttressed  by  coupled 

*  St.  Peter's  fronts  to  the  East  instead  of  the  West,  reversing 
the  usual  orientation  of  churches,  but  conforming  to  the  practice 
of  the  earlier  basilicas. 


FIG.    174. ORIGINAL    PLAN    OF    ST.  PETER  S, 

ROME. 


300 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


Corinthian  columns,  to  a  height  of  405  feet  to  the  top  of  the 
lantern.  The  church,  as  left  by  Michael  Angelo,  was  harmonious 
in  its  proportions,  though  the  single  order  used  internally  and 
externally  dwarfed  by  its  colossal  scale  the  vast  dimensions  of 
the  edifice.  Unfortunately  in  1606  C.  Maderna  was  employed 
by  Paul  V.  to  lengthen  the  nave  by  two  bays,  destroying  the 
proportions  of  the  whole,  and  hiding  the  dome  from  view  on 
a  near  approach.  The  present  tasteless  facade  was  Maderna's 

work.  The  splendid  atrium 
or  portico  added  (1629-67), 
by  Bernini,  as  an  approach, 
mitigates  but  does  not  cure 
the  ugliness  and  pettiness 
of  this  front. 

St.  Peter's  as  thus  com- 
pleted (Figs.  175,  176)  is  the 
largest  church  in  existence, 
and  in  many  respects  is  ar- 
chitecturally worthy  of  its 
pre-eminence.  The  central 
aisle,  nearly  600  feet  long, 
with  its  stupendous  panelled 
and  gilded  vault,  83  feet  in 
span,  the  vast  central  area 
and  the  majestic  dome,  be- 
long to  a  conception  unsur- 
passed in  majestic  simplic- 
ity and  effectiveness.  The 
construction  is  almost  ex- 
cessively massive,  but 
admirably  disposed.  On 

the  other  hand  the  nave  is  too  long,  and  the  details  not  only  lack 
originality  and  interest,  but  are  also  too  large  in  scale,  dwarfing 
the  whole  edifice.  The  interior  (Fig.  176)  is  wanting  in  the  so- 


FIG.    175. PLAN    OF    ST.    PKTER'S,    ROME,  AS 

NOW    STANDING. 

The  portion  below  the  line  A,  f>,  and  the 
side  chapels,  C\  />,  were  added  by  Maderna. 
The  remainder  represents  Michael  An^clo's 
plan. 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE   IN   ITALY.          303 

briety  of  color  that  befits  so  stately  a  design ;  its  decorative  details, 
especially  the  stucco  enrichments  added  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, are  to  a  large  extent  coarse  and  tasteless,  tending  to  nullify 
the  solemnity  which  the  grand  dimensions  impart  to  the  interior 
effect.  But  in  spite  of  its  defects  it  is  a  most  impressive  edifice 
and  a  wonderful  monument  of  architecture. 

THE  PERIOD  OF  FORMAL  CLASSICISM.  By  the  middle 
of  the  sixteenth  century  the  classic  orders  had  come  to  dominate 
all  architectural  design.  While  Vignola,  who  wrote  a  treatise 
upon  the  orders,  had  employed  them  with  unfailing  refinement 
and  judgment,  his  contemporaries  and  successors  showed  less 
discernment  and  taste,  making  of  them  an  end  rather  than  a 
means.  Too  often  mere  classical  correctness  was  substituted  for 
the  fundamental  qualities  of  original  invention  and  intrinsic 
beauty  of  composition.  The  innovation  of  colossal  orders  ex- 
tending through  several  stories,  while  it  gave  to  exterior  designs  a 
certain  grandeur  of  scale,  tended  to  coarseness  and  even  vulgarity 
of  detail.  Sculpture  and  ornament  began  to  lose  their  refinement, 
and  while  street-architecture  gained  in  monumental  scale,  and 
public  squares  received  a  more  stately  adornment  than  ever  be- 
fore, the  street-facades  individually  were  too  often  bare  and  unin- 
teresting in  their  correct  formality.  In  the  interiors  of  churches 
and  large  halls  there  appears  a  struggle  between  a  cold  and  digni- 
fied simplicity  and  a  growing  tendency  toward  pretentious  sham. 
But  these  pernicious  tendencies  did  not  fully  mature  till  the  latter 
part  of  the  century,  and  the  half-century  after  1540  or  1550  was 
prolific  of  notable  works  in  both  ecclesiastical  and  secular  archi- 
tecture. The  names  of  Michael  Angelo  and  Vignola,  whose 
careers  began  in  the  preceding  period;  of  I'alladio  and  della 
Porta  (1541-1604)  in  Rome;  of  Ammanati  in  Florence  and 
Lucca,  of  Sammichele  and  Sansovino  in  Verona  and  Venice,  and 
of  Galeazzo  Alessi  in  Genoa,  stand  high  in  the  ranks  of  archi- 
tectural merit. 

CHURCHES.     The  type  established  by  St.  IVtcr's  was  widely 


304  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

imitated  throughout  Italy.  The  churches  in  which  a  Greek  or 
Latin  cross  is  dominated  by  a  high  dome  rising  from  a  drum  and 
terminating  in  a  lantern,  and  is  treated  both  internally  and  ex- 
ternally with  Roman  Corinthian  pilasters  and  arches,  are  almost 
numberless.  Among  the  best  churches  of  this  type  is  the  Gesu  at 
Rome,  by  Vignola  (1568),  with  a  highly  ornate  interior  of  excel- 
lent proportions  and  a  less  interesting  exterior,  the  facade  adorned 
with  two  stories  of  orders  and  great  Hanking  volutes  over  the  sides 
(see  p.  277).  Two  churches  at  Venice,  by  Palladia — S.  Giorgio 
Maggiore  (1560;  facade  by  Scamozzi,  1575)  and  the  Redentore — 
offer  a  strong  contrast  to  the  Gesu,  in  their  cold  and  almost  bare 
but  pure  and  correct  designs.  An  imitation  of  Bramante's  plan 
for  St.  Peter's  appears  in  S.  M.  di  Carignano,  at  Genoa,  by  Galc- 
azzo  Alessi  (1500-72),  begun  1552,  a  fine  structure,  though  in- 
ferior in  scale  and  detail  to  its  original.  Besides  these  and  other 
important  churches  there  were  many  large  domical  chapels  of 
great  splendor  added  to  earlier  churches;  of  these  the  Chapel  of 
Sixtus  V.  in  S.  M.  Maggiore,  at  Rome,  by  D.  Fontana  (1543- 
1607),  is  an  excellent  example. 

PALACE0.-  ROME.  The  palaces  on  the  Capitoline  Hill,  built 
at  different  dates  (1540-1644)  from  designs  by  Michael  Angelo, 
illustrate  the  palace  architecture  of  this  period,  and  the  imposing 
effect  of  a  single  colossal  order  running  through  two  stories.  This 
treatment,  though  well  adapted  to  produce  monumental  effects  in 
large  squares,  was  dangerous  in  its  bareness  and  heaviness  of 
scale,  and  was  better  suited  for  buildings  of  vast  dimensions  than 
for  ordinary  street-facades.  In  other  Roman  palaces  of  this  time 
the  traditions  of  the  preceding  period  still  prevailed,  as  in  the  Sap- 
ienza  (University),  by  clella  Porta  (1575),  which  lias  a  dignified 
court  and  a  facade  of  great  refinement  without  columns  or  pilas- 
ters. The  Papal  palaces  built  by  Domenico  Fontana  on  the 
Lateran,  Quirinal,  and  Vatican  hills,  between  1574  and  1590, 
externally  copying  the  style  of  the  Farnese,  show  a  similar  return 
to  earlier  models,  but  are  less  pure  and  refined  in  detail  than  the 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE   IN   ITALY.  305 

Sapienza.  The  great  pentagonal  Palace  of  Caprarola,  near 
Rome,  by  Vignola,  is  perhaps  the  most  successful  and  imposing 
production  of  the  Roman  classic  school  in  this  field. 

VERONA.  Outside  of  Rome,  palace-building  took  on  various 
local  and  provincial  phases  of  style,  of  which  the  most  important 
were  the  closely  related  styles  of  Verona,  Venice,  and  Vicenza. 
Mifliele  Sammichele  (1484-1559),  who  built  in  Verona  the  Bevi- 
lacqua,  Canossa,  Pompei,  and  Verzi  palaces  and  the  four  chief 
city  gates,  and  in  Venice  the  P.  Grimani,  his  masterpiece  (1550), 
was  a  designer  of  great  originality  and  power.  He  introduced 
into  his  military  architecture,  as  in  the  gates  of  Verona,  the  use  of 
rusticated  orders,  which  he  treated  with  skill  and  taste.  The  idea 
was  copied  by  later  architects  and  applied,  with  doubtful  pro- 
priety, to  palace-facades;  though  Ammanati's  garden-facade  for 
the  Pitti  palace,  in  Florence  (dr.  1560),  is  an  impressive  and  suc- 
cessful design. 

VENICE.  Into  the  development  of  the  maturing  classic  style 
Giacopo  Tatti  Sansovino  (1477-1570)  introduced  in  his  Venetian 
buildings  new  elements  of  splendor.  Coupled  columns  between 
arches  themselves  supported  on  columns,  and  a  profusion  of  figure 
sculpture,  gave  to  his  palace-facades  a  hitherto  unknown  magnifi- 
cence of  effect,  as  in  the  Library  of  St.  Mark  (now  the  Royal  Pal- 
ace, Fig.  177),  and  the  Cornaro  palace  (P.  Corner  de  Ca  Grande), 
both  dating  from  about  1530-40.  So  strongly  did  he  impress 
uj>on  Venice  these  ornate  and  sumptuous  variations  on  classic 
themes,  that  later  architects  adhered,  in  a  very  debased  period,  to 
the  main  features  and  spirit  of  his  work. 

VICENZA.  Qi  Palladia's  churches  in  Venice  we  have  already 
spoken;  his  palaces  are  mainly  to  be  found  in  his  native  city, 
Vicenza.  In  these  structures  he  displayed  great  fertility  of  in- 
vention and  a  profound  familiarity  with  the  classic  orders,  but  the 
degenerate  taste  of  the  Baroque  period  already  begins  to  show 
itself  in  his  work.  There  is  less  of  architectural  propriety  and 
grace  in  these  pretentious  palaces,  with  their  colossal  orders  and 


306 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


their  affectation  of  grandeur,  than  in  the  designs  of  Vignola  or 
Sammichele.  Wood  and  plaster,  used  to  mimic  stone,  indicate 
the  approaching  reign  of  sham  in  all  design  (P.  Barbarano,  1570; 

Chieregati,  1560;  Tiene, 
Valmarano,  1556; 
Porto,  Pref  etizzio,  Villa 
Capra).  His  masterpiece 
is  the  two-storied  arcade 
about  the  mediaeval  Ba- 
silica, in  which  the  arches 
are  supported  on  a  minor 
order  between  engaged 
columns  serving  as  but- 
tresses. This  treatment 
has  in  consequence  ever 
since  been  known  as  the 
Palladian  Motive. 

GENOA.  During  the 
second  half  of  the  six- 
teenth century  a  remark- 
able series  of  palaces  was 
erected  in  Genoa,  espe- 
cially notable  for  their 
great  courts  and  impos- 
ing staircases.  These 
last  were  given  unusual 
prominence  owing  to  dif- 
ferences of  level  in  the  courts,  arising  from  the  slope  of  their  sites 
on  the  hillside.  Among  these  palaces  the  P.  Giustiniani, 
Lercari,  Cambiasi,  Sauli,  Pallavicini  and  several  others,  and 
the  elegant  Loggia  dei  Banchi,  were  by  Galeazzo  Alcssi  (1502- 
72);  others  by  architects  of  lesser  note;  but  nearly  all  charac- 
terized by  their  effective  planning,  fine  stairs  and  loggias,  and 
strong  and  dignified,  if  sometimes  uninteresting,  detail  (P.  Balbi, 


PItJ.     177.        LIBRARY    OF   ST.    MARK,    VENICE. 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE   IN    ITALY. 


307 


Brignole,  Doria-Tursi  [or  Municipio],  by  Rocco  Lurago,  Du- 
razzo  [or  Reale],  and  University  by  Bianchi). 

THE  BAROQUE  STYLE.  A  reaction  from  the  cold  classi- 
cismo  of  the  late  sixteenth  century  showed  itself  in  the  following 
period,  in  the  lawless  and  vulgar  extravagances  of  the  so-called 
Baroque  style.  The  wealthy  Jesuit  order  was  a  notorious  con- 
tributor to  the  debasement  of  architectural  taste.  Most  of  the 
Jesuit  churches  and  many  others  not  belonging  to  the  order,  but 
following  its  pernicious  example,  are  monuments  of  bad  taste  and 
pretentious  sham. 
Broken  and  contorted 
pediments,  huge  scrolls, 
heavy  mouldings,  ill- 
applied  sculpture  in  ex- 
aggerated attitudes,  and 
a  general  disregard  for 
architectural  propriety 
characterized  this  per- 
iod, especially  in  its 
church  architecture,  to 
whose  style  the  name 
Jesuit  is  often  applied. 
Sham  marble  and  heavy 
and  excessive  gilding 
were  universal  (Fig. 
178).  C.  Maderna 
(1556-1629),  Lorenzo 
Bernini  (1589-1680), 
and  F.  Borromini  (1599- 
1667)  were  the  worst 
offenders  of  the  period, 
though  Bernini  was  an 

artist  of  undoubted  ability,  as  proved   by   his   colonnades  or 
atrium  in  front  of  St.  Peter's.     There  were,  however,  architects 


178. —  INTERIOR    OF   SAN   SBVBRO. 
NAPLES. 


308 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


of  purer  taste  whose  works  even  in  that  debased  age  were 
worthy  of  admiration. 

BAROQUE  CHURCHES.  The  Baroque  style  prevailed  in 
church  architecture  for  almost  two  centuries.  The  majority  of 
the  churches  present  varieties  of  the  cruciform  plan  crowned  by  a 

high  dome  which  is 
usually  the  best  part 
of  the  design.  The 
vices  of  the  period  ap- 
pear in  all  other  parts 
of  these  churches,  es- 
pecially in  their  facades 
and  internal  decor- 
ation. S.  M.  della 
Vittoria,  by  Maderna, 
and  Sta.  Agnese,  by 
Borromini,  both  at 
Rome,  are  examples 
of  the  style.  Naples 
is  particularly  full  of 
Baroque  churches 
(Fig.  iycS),  a  few  of 
which,  like  the  Gesu 
Nuovo  (1584),  are 
dignified  and  credit- 
able designs.  The 
domical  church  of  S. 

M.  della  Salute,  at  Venice  (1631),  by  Long/iciia  (1604-1675), 
is  also  a  majestic  edifice  in  excellent  style  (Fig.  179),  and  here 
and  there  other  churches  offer  exceptions  to  the  prevalent 
baseness  of  architecture.  Particularly  objectionable  was  the 
wholesale  disfigurement  of  existing  monuments  by  ruthless  re- 
modelling, as  in  S.  John  Lateran,  at  Rome,  the  cathedrals  of  Fer- 
rara,  Palermo,  Ravenna,  and  many  others. 


FIG.    179. CHURCH    OF   S.    M.    DELLA    SALUTE, 

VENICE. 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE    IN    ITALY.          309 

PALACES.  These  were  generally  superior  to  the  churches,  and 
not  infrequently  impressive  and  dignified  structures.  The  two 
best  examples  in  Rome  are  the  P.  Borghese,by  Martina  Lunghi 
the  Elder  (1590),  with  a  fine  court  arcade  on  coupled  Doric. and 
Ionic  columns,  and  the  P.  Barberini,  by  Maderna  and  Borro- 
mini,  with  an  elliptical  staircase  by  Bernini,  one  of  the  few 
palaces  in  Italy  with  projecting  lateral  wings.  In  Venice,  Long- 
hena,  in  the  Rezzonico  and  Pesaro  palaces  (1650-80),  showed 
his  freedom  from  the  mannerisms  of  the  age  by  reproducing 
successfully  the  ornate  but  dignified  style  of  Sansovino  (see 
p.  305).  At  Naples  D.  Fontana,  whose  works  overlap  the 
Baroque  period,  produced  in  the  Royal  Palace  (1600)  and  the 
Royal  Museum  (1586-1615)  designs  of  considerable  dignity, 
in  some  respects  superior  to  his  papal  residences  in  Rome.  In 
suburban  villas,  like  the  Albani  and  Borghese  villas  near  Rome, 
the  ostentatious  style  of  the  Decline  found  free  and  congenial 
expression. 

FOUNTAINS.  To  this  period  belong  many  of  the  monumental 
fountains  erected  in  Rome,  Messina,  Viterbo,  Bologna,  Florence 
and  other  cities.  Among  these,  two  in  Rome  are  worthy  of  espe- 
cial mention:  the  Fonte  Felice  by  D.  Fontana  (1585)  and  the  F. 
Paolina  (1611),  by  Giov.  Fontana.  The  great  Fontana  di  Trevi 
is  a  later  work  (see  p.  310). 

LATER  MONUMENTS.  In  the  few  eighteenth-century  build- 
ings which  are  worthy  of  mention  there  is  noticeable  a  reaction 
from  the  extravagances  of  the  seventeenth  century,  shown  in  the 
dignified  correctness  of  the  exteriors  and  the  somewhat  frigid 
splendor  of  the  interiors.  The  most  notable  work  of  this  period  is 
the  Royal  Palace  at  Caserta,  by  Van  Vifclli  (1752),  an  archi- 
tect of  considerable  taste  and  inventiveness,  considering  his  time. 
This  great  palace,  800  feet  square,  encloses  four  fine  courts,  and  is 
especially  remarkable  for  the  simple  if  monotonous  dignity  of  the 
well-proportioned  exterior  and  the  effective  planning  of  its  three 
octagonal  vestibules,  its  ornate  chapel  and  noble  staircase. 


3IO  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

Staircases,  indeed,  were  among  the  most  successful  features  of 
late  Italian  architecture,  as  in  the  Scala  Regia  of  the  Vatican, 
and  in  the  Corsini,  Braschi,  and  Barberini  palaces  at  Rome,  the 
Royal  Palace  at  Naples,  etc. 

In  church  architecture  the  east  front  of  S.  John  Lateran* 
in  Rome,  by  Galilei  (1734),  and  the  whole  exterior  of  S.  M.  Mag- 
giore,  by  Ferd.  Fuga  (1743),  are  noteworthy  designs:  the 
former  an  especially  powerful  conception,  combining  a  colossal 
order  with  two  smaller  orders  in  superposed  loggie,  but  marred  by 
the  excessive  scale  of  the  balustrade  and  statues  which  crown  it. 
The  Fountain  of  Trevi,  conceived  in  much  the  same  spirit 
(1735,  by  Niccola  Salvi),  is  a  striking  piece  of  decorative  architec- 
ture. The  Sacristy  of  St.  Peter's,  by  Marchionne  (1775),  also 
deserves  mention  as  a  monumental  and  not  uninteresting  work. 
In  the  early  years  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  Braccio  Nuovo 
of  the  Vatican,  by  Stern,  the  imposing  church  of  S.  Francesco  di 
Paola  at  Naples,  by  Bianc/ii,  designed  in  partial  imitation  of  the 
Pantheon,  and  the  great  S.  Carlo  Theatre  at  Naples,  show  the 
same  coldly  classical  spirit,  not  wholly  without  merit,  but  lacking 
in  true  originality  and  freedom  of  conception. 

CAMPANILES.  The  campaniles  of  the  Renaissance  and 
Decline  deserve  passing  reference,  though  less  important  and  in- 
teresting than  other  forms  of  Renaissance  architecture.  Some 
are  simple  square  towers  with  pilasters;  more  often  engaged  col- 
umns and  entablatures  mark  the  several  stories,  and  the  upper 
portion  is  treated  either  with  an  octagonal  lantern  or  with  dimin- 
ishing stages,  and  sometimes  with  a  spire.  Of  the  latter  class  the 
best  example  is  that  of  S.  Biagio,  at  Alontepulciano, — one  of  the 
two  designed  to  flank  the  facade  of  Ant.  da  S.  Gallo's  beautiful 
church  of  that  name.  One  or  two  good  late  examples  are  to  be 
found  at  Naples.  Of  the  more  massive  square  type  there  are  cx- 

*  St.  John  Lateran  follows  the  primitive  basilican  orientation,  as 
docs  St.  Peter's,  instead  of  the  later  medkeval  custom  of  fronting 
westwards. 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE   IN    ITALY.          311 

amples  in  the  towers  of  S.  Michele,  Venice;  of  the  cathedral  at 
Ferrara,  Sta.  Chiara  at  Naples,  and  Sta.  Maria  dell'  Anima — one 
of  the  earliest — at  Rome.  The  most  complete  and  perfect  of 
these  square  belfries  of  the  Renaissance  is  that  of  the  Campido- 
glio  at  Rome,  by  Martino  Lunghi,  dating  from  the  end  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  which  groups  so  admirably  with  the  palaces  of  the 
Capitol.  Venetia  possesses  a  number  of  graceful  and  lofty  bell- 
towers,  generally  of  brick  with  marble  bell-stages,  of  which  the 
upper  part  of  the  Campanile  of  St.  Mark  (which  fell  in  1902; 
see  p.  164)  and  the  tower  of  S.  Giorgio  Maggiore  are  the  finest 
examples. 

IN  CONCLUSION:  The  revival  of  the  actual  forms  of  ancient 
Roman  architecture  was  only  partially  accomplished  by  the  Ital- 
ian architects  of  the  Renaissance  and  then  only  for  brief  periods 
— during  the  latter  half  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  in  a  few 
buildings  of  the  eighteenth.  The  architects  of  the  early  Renais- 
sance did  not  attain  to  their  aim  of  reviving  Roman  art;  those  of 
the  Decline  soon  wearied  of  its  restrictions.  Their  revolt  would 
perhaps  been  less  lawless  had  their  predecessors  not  fallen  into 
so  mechanical  a  copying  of  antique  forms — of  the  letter  without 
the  spirit  of  antique  art. 

MONUMENTS:  (mainly  in  addition  to  those  mentioned  in  the 
text).  i5Tii  CENTURY — FLORENCE:  Foundling  Hospital  (Innocenti), 
1421;  Old  Sacristy  and  Cloister  S.  Lorenzo;  P.  Quaratesi,  1440; 
cloisters  at  Sta.  Croce  and  Certosa,  all  by  Brunelleschi ;  fagade  S. 
M.  Xoveila,  by  Alberti,  1456;  I'adia  at  Fiesole,  from  designs  of 
Rruncllesclii,  1462;  Court  of  P.  Vccchio,  by  Michelozzi,  1464  (al- 
tered and  enriched.  1565);  P.  Guadagni,  by  Cronaca,  1400;  Hall 
of  500  in  P.  Vecchio.  by  same,  1495. — VKNICE:  S.  Zaccaria,  by 
Martino  Lombardo,  1457-1515:  S.  Michele.  by  Moro  Lombardo, 
1466;  S.  M.  del  Orto.  147.?;  S.  Giovanni  Crisostomo.  by  Moro 
Lombardo,  atrium  of  S.  Giovanni  Rvangclista,  Procura/ic  Yecchie, 
all  14X1  ;  Scuola  di  S.  Marco,  by  Martino  and  I'ietro  Lombardo, 
HQO;  I'-  Hario;  P.  Corncr-Spinelli. — FERRARA:  P.  Schifanoja,  1460; 
P.  Scrofa  or  Costabili,  14X5;  S.  M.  in  Vado,  P.  dei  Diamanti,  P. 


312  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

Bevilacqua,  S.  Francesco.  S.  Benedetto,  S.  Cristoforo,  all  1490- 
1500. — MILAN:  Ospedalc  Grande  (or  Maggiore),  begun  1457  by 
Filarete,  extended  by  Bramante,  cir.  1480-90  (great  court  by  Ricb- 
ini,  1 7th  century)  ;  S.  M.  delle  Grazie,  E.  end,  Sacristy  of  S.  Satiro, 
S.  M.  presso  S.  Celso,  all  by  Bramante.  1477-1499. — ROME:  S. 
Pietro  in  Montorio,  1472;  S.  M.  del  Popolo,  1475?;  Sistine  Chapel 
of  Vatican,  1475;  S.  Agostino,  1483. — SIEXXA  :  Loggia  del  Papa 
and  P.  Xerucci,  1460;  P.  del  Governo,  1469-1500;  P.  Spannoccbi, 
1470;  Sta.  Catarina,  1490,  by  di  Bastiano  and  Federighi,  church 
later  by  Peruzzi ;  Library  in  cathedral  by  L.  Marina.  1497;  Oratory 
of  S.  Bernardino,  by  Turrapili,  1496. — PIENZA  :  Cathedral,  Bishop's 
Palace  (Vescovado),  P.  Pubblico,  all  cir.  1460.  by  B.  di  Lorenzo 
(or  Rosselini?).  ELSEWHERE  (in  chronological  order):  Arch  of 
Alphonso,  Naples,  1443,  by  P.  di  Martino;  Oratory  S.  Bernardino, 
Perugia,  by  di  Duccio,  1461  ;  Church  over  Casa  Santa,  Loreto,  1465- 
1526;  P.  del  Consiglio  at  Verona,  by  Fra  Giocondo,  1476;  Capclla 
Colleoni,  Bergamo,  1476;  S.  M.  in  Organo,  Verona,  1481;  Porta 
Capuana,  Naples,  by  Giul.  da  Majano,  1484;  ]\ladonna  della  Croce, 
Crema,  by  B.  Battagli,  1490-1556;  Madonna  di  Campagna  and  S. 
Sisto,  Piacenza,  both  1492-1511;  P.  Bevilacqua,  Bologna,  by  Nardi, 
1492  (?);  P.  Gravina.  Naples;  P.  Fava,  Bologna;  P.  Pretorio, 
Lucca;  S.  M.  dci  Miracoli,  Brescia;  all  at  close  of  i5th  century. 

16111  CENTURY — ROME:  P.  Sora,  1501;  S.  M.  della  Pace  and 
cloister,  1504,  both  by  Bramante  (faqade  of  church  by  P.  da  Cor- 
tona,  i/th  century)  ;  S.  M.  di  Loreto,  1507,  by  A.  da  San  Gallo  the 
Elder;  P.  Vidoni,  by  Raphael;  P.  Lante,"  1520;  Vigna  Papa  Giulio, 
1534,  by  Peruzzi ;  P.  clei  Conservator!,  1540,  and  P.  del  Senatore, 
1563  (both  on  Capitol),  by  M.  Angelo,  Vignola,  and  della  Porta; 
Sistine  Chapel  in  S.  M.  Maggiore,  1590;  S.  Andrea  della  Valle, 
'591.  hy  Olivieri  (fac.ade,  1670,  by  Rainaldi). — FLORENCE:  Medici 
Cliapel  of  S.  Lorenzo,  new  sacristy  of  same,  and  Laurentian 
Library,  all  by  M.  Angelo,  1529-40;  Mercato  Nuovo,  1547,  by  I?. 
Tasso ;  P.  desji  Uffizi,  1560-70,  by  Vasari  ;  P.  Giugni.  1560-8. — 
VENUE:  P.  Camerlinghi  1525,  b}*  Bergamasco;  S.  Francesco  della 
Vigna,  by  Sansovino,  1539,  facade  by  Palladio,  1568;  Zecca  or 
Mint,  1536,  and  Loggctta  of  Campanile,  1540,  by  Sansovino;  Pro- 
curazie  Nuove,  1584,  by  Scamo/zi. — VERONA:  Capella  Pellegrini  in 
S.  Bernardino,  1514:  City  Gates,  by  Sammichele,  1530-40  (Porte 
Xuova.  Stii|)pa,  S.  Y.cnn,  S.  (iiorgio). — VICEN/A  :  P.  Porto,  1552; 
Teatro  Olimpico,  1580;  both  l>y  Palladio. — GENOA:  P.  Andrea 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE    IN    ITALY.  313 

Doria,  by  Montorsoli,  1529;  P.  Ducalo,  by  Pcnnonc,  1550;  P. 
Lercari,  P.  Spinola,  P.  Sauli,  P.  Marcello  Durazzo,  all  by  Gal. 
Alessi,  cir.  1550;  Sta.  Annunziata,  1587,  by  dclla  Porta ;  Loggia 
del  Banchi,  end  of  i6th  century. — ELSEWHERE  (in  chronological 
order)  :  S.  M.  prcsso  S.  Celso,  Milan,  by  Brnmante  and  Alessi;  P. 
Roverella,  Fcrrara,  1508;  P.  del  Magnilico,  Sienna,  1508,  by  Cozza- 
relli ;  P.  Comniunale,  Brescia,  1508,  by  Formentone ;  P.  Albcrgati, 
Bologna,  1510;  P.  Ducale,  Reggio-Gonzaga  or  Corte  Reale,  and 
Pal.  della  Giusti/.ia,  all  in  Mantua,  1520-40;  P.  Giustiniani,  Padua, 
by  Falconetto,  1524;  Ospedale  del  Ccppo,  Pistoia,  1525;  Madonna 
delle  Grazie,  Pistoia,  by  Vitoni,  1535;  P.  Buoncampagni-Ludovisi, 
Bologna,  1545;  Cathedral,  Padua,  1550,  by  Ringhetti  and  della  Valle, 
after  M.  Angclo ;  P.  Bernardini,  1560.  and  P.  Ducale,  1578,  at 
Lucca,  both  by  Ammanati. 

I/TH  CENTURY:  Chapel  of  the  Princes  in  S.  Lorenzo,  Florence, 
1604,  by  Nigetti;  S.  Pietro,  Bologna,  1605;  S.  Andrea  delle  Fratte, 
Rome,  1612;  Villa  Borghese,  Rome,  1616,  by  Vasanzio;  P.  Con- 
tarini  delle  Scrigni,  Venice,  by  Scamozzi ;  Badia  at  Florence,  re- 
built 1625  by  Segaloni ;  S.  Ignazio,  Rome,  1626-85;  Museum  of  the 
Capitol,  Rome,  1644-50;  Church  of  Gli  Scalzi,  Venice,  1649;  P. 
Pesaro,  Venice,  by  Longhcna,  1650;  P.  Reale,  Turin,  1660;  S. 
Moise,  Venice,  1668;  Brera  Palace,  Milan;  P.  Carignano,  Turin, 
i6So;  S.  M.  Zobenigo,  Venice,  1680;  Dogana  di  Mare,  Venice,  1686, 
by  Bcnohe ;  Santi  Apostoli,  Rome. 

18x11  AND  EAKI.Y  HjTii  CKNTfKY:  University,  Turin,  by  Ricca, 
1713;  Gesuati,  at  Venice,  1715-30;  P.  Reale,  Milan,  1/72;  S.  Gcre- 
mia,  Venice,  1753,  by  Corbellini;  P.  Braschi,  Rome,  by  Morelli, 
1790;  Xuova  Fabbrica,  Venice,  1810. 


CHAPTER    XXII. 

RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE   IN    FRANCE. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED:  As  before,  Fergusson,  Miintz,  Palus- 
tre.  Also  Berty,  La  Renaissance  tnonnmentale  en  France. 
Blondel,  Architecture  franc^aise.  Chateau,  Histoire  el  caracteres 
de  ^architecture  en  France.  Daly,  Motifs  historiques  ^architec- 
ture et  de  sculpture.  De  Laborde,  La  Renaissance  dcs  arts  a  la 
cour  de  France.  Du  Cerceau,  Les  plus  excellent s  bast  i  men  ts  de 
France.  Liibke,  Gcschichte  dcr  Renaissance  in  Frankrcich. 
Mathews,  The  Renaissance  tinder  the  Valois  Kings.  Palustre, 
La  Renaissance  en  France.  Pattison,  The  Renaissance  0}  the 
Fine  Arts  in  France.  Rouyer  et  Darcel,  L'Art  architectural  en 
France.  Sauvageot,  Choix  de  palais,  chateaux,  hotels,  et  maiscns 
de  France 

ORIGIN  AND  CHARACTER.  The  vitality  and  richness  of 
the  Gothic  style  in  France,  even  in  its  decline  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, long  stood  in  the  way  of  any  general  introduction  of  classic 
forms.  When  the  Renaissance  appeared,  it  came  as  a  foreign 
importation,  introduced  from  Italy  by  the  king  and  the  nobility. 
It  underwent  a  protracted  transitional  phase,  during  which  the 
national  Gothic  forms  and  traditions  were  picturesquely  mingled 
with  those  of  the  Renaissance.  The  campaigns  of  Charles  VIII. 
(1489),  Louis  XII.  (1499),  and  Francis  I.  (1515),  in  vindication 
of  their  claims  to  the  throne  of  Naples  and  the  dukedom  of  Milan, 
brought  these  monarchs  and  their  nobles  into  contact  with  the 
splendid  material  and  artistic  civilization  of  Italy,  then  in  the  full 
tide  of  the  maturing  Renaissance.  They  returned  to  France, 
filled  with  the  ambition  to  rival  the  splendid  palaces  and  gardens 
of  Italy,  taking  with  them  Italian  artists  to  teach  their  arts  to  the 


RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE   IN   FRANCE.        315 

French.  But  while  these  Italians  successfully  introduced  many 
classic  elements  and  details  into  French  architecture,  they  wholly 
failed  to  dominate  the  French  master-masons  and  tailleurs  de 
pierre  in  matters  of  planning  and  general  composition.  The  early 
Renaissance  architecture  of  France  is  consequently  wholly  unlike 
the  Italian,  from  which  it  derived  only  minor  details  and  a  certain 
largeness  and  breadth  of  spirit.  It  differs  from  the  Italian  also  in 
being  pre-eminently  a  royal  and  courtly  style,  dominated  through 
much  of  its  history  by  the  taste  and  the  architectural  activity  of  a 
series  of  builder-monarchs. 

PERIODS.  The  French  Renaissance  and  its  sequent  develop- 
ments may  be  broadly  divided  into  three  periods,  with  subdivis- 
ions coinciding  more  or  less  closely  with  various  reigns,  as  follows: 

I.  THE  VALOIS  PERIOD,  or  Renaissance  proper,  1483-1589, 
subdivided  into: 

a.  THE  TRANSITION,  comprising  the  reigns  of  Charles  VIII. 
and  Louis  XII.  (1483-1515),  and  the  early  years  of  that  of  Francis 
I.;  characterized  by  a  picturesque  mixture  of  classic  details  with 
Gothic  conceptions. 

I).  THE  STYLE  OF  FRANCIS  I.,  or  Early  Renaissance,  from  about 
1520  to  that  king's  death  in  1547;  distinguished  by  a  remarkable 
variety  and  grace  of  composition  and  beauty  of  detail,  with  a 
gradual  increase  of  classic  forms. 

c.  THE  ADVANCED  RENAISSANCE,  comprising  the  reigns  of 
Henry  II.  (1547),  Francis  II.  (1559),  Charles  IX.  (1560),  and 
Henry  III.  (1574-89);  marked  by  a  constant  struggle  between 
the  increasing  classical  tendency  and  a  more  or  less  fantastic 
caprice. 

II.  THE  BOURBON  or  CLASSIC  PERIOD  (1589-1715): 

a.  STYLE  OF  HEXRY  IV.,  covering  his  reign  and  partly  that  of 
Louis  XIII.  (1610-45),  employing  the  orders  and  other  classic 
forms  with  a  somewhat  heavy,  florid  style  of  ornament. 

b.  STYLE  OF  Louis  XIV.,  beginning  in  the  preceding  reign  and 
extending  through  that  of  Louis  XIV.  (1645-1715);  the  great  age 


316  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

of  classic  architecture  in  France,  corresponding  to  the  Palladian 
in  Italy. 

III.  THE  DECLINE  or  Rococo  PERIOD,  corresponding  with  the 
reign  of  Louis  XV.  (1715-74);  marked  by  a  fanciful  and  some- 
times frivolous  .capriciousness  of  decoration. 

During  this  period  a  reaction  set  in  toward  a  severer  classicism, 
leading  to  the  styles  of  Louis  XVI.  and  of  the  Empire,  to  be 
treated  of  in  a  later  chapter.  Through  all  these  developments 
there  appears  a  constant  struggle  between  two  tendencies:  one, 
which  may  be  called  the  Latin,  toward  classical  correctness;  the 
other,  which  we  may  for  lack  of  a  better  designation  call  the 
Gallic,  toward  freedom  from  the  traditional  restraints.  The 
progress  from  the  free  style  of  Francis  I.  to  the  formal  correctness 
of  that  of  Louis  XIV.  was  marked  by  singular  oscillations,  and 
the  struggle  continues  even  in  modern  French  art. 

THE  TRANSITION.  As  early  as  1475  the  new  style  made  its 
appearance  in  altars,  tombs,  and  rood-screens  wrought  by  French 
carvers  with  the  collaboration  of  Italian  artificers.  The  tomb 
erected  by  Charles  of  Anjou  to  his  father  in  Le  Mans  Cathedral 
(1475,  by  Francesco  Laitrana},  the  chapel  of  St.  Lazare  in  the 
cathedral  of  Marseilles  (1483),  and  the  tomb  of  the  children  of 
Charles  VIII.  in  Tours  Cathedral  (1506),  by  Michel  Columbc,  the 
greatest  artist  of  his  time  in  France,  are  examples.  The  schools 
of  Rouen  and  Tours  were  especially  prominent  in  works  of  this 
kind,  marked  by  exuberant  fancy  and  great  delicacy  of  execution. 
In  church  architecture  Gothic  traditions  were  long  dominant,  in 
spite  of  the  great  numbers  of  Italian  prelates  in  I'" ranee.  It  was 
in  chateaux,  palaces,  and  dwellings  that  the  new  style  achieved  its 
most  notable  triumphs. 

EARLY  CHATEAUX.  The  castle  of  Charles  VIII.,  at  Am- 
boise  on  the  Loire,  shows  little  trace  of  Italian  influence.  It  was 
under  Louis  XII.  that  the  transformation  of  French  architecture 
really  began.  The  Chateau  de  Gaillon  (of  which  unfortunately 
only  fragments  remain  in  the  Fcole  des  Beaux-Arts  at  Paris), 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE    IN    FRANCE.        317 


built  for  the  Cardinal  George  of  Amboisc,  between  1497  an<^  :5O9> 
by  Pierre  Fain,  was  the  mastenvork  of  the  Rouen  school.  It 
presented  a  curious  mixture  of  styles,  with  its  irregular  plan,  its 
moat,  drawbridge,  and 
round  corner-towers,  its 
high  roofs,  turrets,  and 
dormers,  which  gave  it, 
in  spite  of  many  Renais- 
sance details,  a  medkeval 
picturesqueness.  T  h  e 
Chateau  de  Blois  (the 
east  and  south  wings  of 
the  present  group), begun 
for  Louis  XII.  about 
1500,  was  the  first  of  a  re- 
markable series  of  royal 
palaces  which  are  the 
glory  of  French  architec- 
ture. It  sh6\vs  the  new 
influences  in  its  horizontal 
lines  and  flat,  unbroken 
facades  of  brick  and  stone, 
rather  than  in  its  archi- 
tectural details  (Fig.  180). 
The  Ducal  Palace  at 
Nancy  and  the  Hotel 
de  Ville  at  Orleans,  by 
Viart,  show  a  some- 
what similar  commingling  of  the  classic  and  mediaeval  styles. 
STYLE  OF  FRANCIS  I.  Under  the  lead  of  Italian  artists,  like 
il  Rosso,  Serlio,  and  Primaticcio,  classic  elements  early  began  to 
dominate  the  general  composition  and  Gothic  details  to  disap- 
pear. A  simple  and  effective  system  of  exterior  design  was 
adopted  in  the  castles  and  palaces  of  this  period.  Finely 


318  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

moulded  belt-courses  at  the  sills  and  heads  of  the  windows 
marked  the  different  stories,  and  were  crossed  by  a  system  of 
almost  equally  important  vertical  lines,  formed  by  superposed 
pilasters  flanking  the  windows  continuously  from  basement  to 
roof.  The  facade  was  crowned  by  a  slight  cornice  and  open 
balustrade,  above  which  rose  a  steep  and  lofty  roof,  diversified  by 
elaborate  dormer  windows  which  were  adorned  with  gables  and 
pinnacles  (Fig.  181).  Slender  pilasters,  treated  like  long  panels 
ornamented  with  arabesques  of  great  beauty,  or  with  a  species  of 
baluster  shaft*  like  a  candelabrum,  were  preferred  to  columns,  and 
were  provided  with  graceful  capitals  of  the  Corinthianesque  type. 
The  mouldings  were  minute  and  richly  carved;  pediments  were 
replaced  by  steep  gables,  and  mullioned  windows  with  stone 
crossbars  were  used  in  preference  to  the  simpler  Italian  openings. 
In  the  earlier  monuments  Gothic  details  were  still  used  occasion- 
ally; and  round  corner-towers,  high  dormers,  and  numerous 
turrets  and  pinnacles  appear  even  in  the  chateaux  of  later  date. 

CHURCHES.  Ecclesiastical  architecture  received  but  scant 
attention  under  Francis  I.,  and,  so  far  as  it  was  practised,  still 
clung  tenaciously  to  Gothic  principles.  Among  the  few  impor- 
tant churches  of  this  period  may  be  mentioned  St.  Etienne  du 
Mont,  at  Paris  (1517-38),  in  which  classic  and  Gothic  features 
appear  in  nearly  equal  proportions;  the  east  end  of  St.  Pierre,  at 
Caen,  with  rich  external  carving;  and  the  great  parish  church 
of  St.  Eustache,  at  Paris  (1532,  by  Pierre  Loner rier},m  which 
the  plan  and  construction  are  purely  Gothic,  while  the  details 
throughout  belong  to  the  new  style,  though  with  little  appreciation 
of  the  spirit  and  proportions  of  classic  art.  New  facades  were 
also  built  for  a  number  of  already  existing  churches,  among  which 
St.  Michel,  at  Dijon,  is  conspicuous,  with  its  vast  portal  arch  and 

*  Derived  evidently  from  the  decorations  of  the  P..  end  of  S.  M. 
delle  (jra/ie  at  Milan  and  the  mullion-candelabra  in  the  ^reat 
windows  of  the  Certosa  at  Pavia,  as  a  result  of  Francis  I.'s  cam- 
paigns in  Italy. 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE   IN   FRANCE.        319 


r: 


imposing  towers.  The  Gothic  towers  of  Tours  Cathedral  were 
completed  with  Renaissance  lanterns  or  belfries,  the  northern  in 
1507,  the  southern  in  1547. 

PALACES.  To  the  palace  at  Blois  begun  by  his  predecessor, 
Francis  I.  added  a  northern 
and  a  western  wing,  complet- 
ing the  court.  The  north  wing 
is  one  of  the  masterpieces  of 
the  style,  presenting  toward 
the  court  a  simple  and  effect- 
ive composition,  with  a  rich 
but  slightly  projecting  cornice 
and  a  high  roof  with  elabor- 
ate dormers.  This  fa9ade  is 
divided  into  two  unequal  sec- 
tions by  the  open  Staircase 
Tower  (Fig.  181),  a  chcj- 
d'a-inre  in  boldness  of  con- 
struction as  well  as  in  delicacy 
and  richness  of  carving.  The 
outer  facade  of  this  wing  is  a 
less  ornate  but  more  vigorous 
design,  crowned  by  a  contin- 
uous open  loggia  under  the 
roof.  More  extensive  than 
Blois  was  Fontainebleau,  the 
favorite  residence  of  the  king 
and  of  many  of  his  successors. 

Following  in  parts  the  irregular  plan  of  the  convent  it  replaced, 
its  other  portions  were  more  symmetrically  disposed,  while  the 
whole  was  treated  externally  in  a  somewhat  severe,  semi-classic 
style,  singularly  lacking  in  ornament.  Internally,  however,  this 
palace,  begun  in  1528,  by  Gillcs  l.c  lircton  (1495?  1552),  was  at 
that  time  the  most  splendid  in  France,  the  gallery  of  Franc-is  I. 


.. 


PIO.     l8l. STAIRCASE    TOWER,  BLOIS. 


320 


HISTORY    OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


being  especially  noted.  The  Chateau  of  St.  Germain,  near 
Paris  (1539,  by  Pierre  Chambiges,  d.  1544),  is  of  a  very  different 
character.  Built  largely  of  brick,  with  flat  balustraded  roof 

and  deep  buttresses  car- 
rying three  ranges  of 
arches,  it  is  neither 
Gothic  nor  classic, 
neither  fortress  nor  pal- 
ace in  aspect,  but  a 
wholly  unique  concep- 
tion. 

The  rural  chateaux 
and  hunting-lodges 
erected  by  Francis  I. 
display  the  greatest  diversity  of  plan  and  treatment,  attesting  the 
inventiveness  of  the  French  genius,  expressing  itself  in  a  new- 
found language,  whose  formal  canons  it  disdained.  Chief  among 
them  is  the  Chateau  of  Chambord  (Figs.  182,  183) — "a  Fata 
Morgana  in  the  midst  of  a  wild,  woody  thicket,"  to  use  Liibke's 
language.  This  extraordinary  edifice,  resembling  in  plan  a  feu- 
dal castle  with  curtain-walls,  bastions,  moat,  and  donjon,  is  in  its 


FIG.     182. PLAN    OF    CHAMDORD. 


FIG.     183.—   KOOF    OP    CIIAMBOKI). 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE   IN    FRANCE.        321 

architectural  treatment  a  palace  with  arcades,  open  stair-towers, 
a  noble  double  spiral  staircase  terminating  in  a  graceful  lantern, 
and  a  roof  of  the  most  bewildering  complexity  of  towers,  chimneys 
and  dormers  (1526,  by  Pierre  le  Xefrccu}.  The  hunting-lodges 
of  La  Muette  and  Chalvau,  and  the  so-called  Chateau  de  Ma- 
drid— all  three  demolished  during  or  since  the  Revolution — 
deserve  mention,  especially  the  last.  This  consisted  of  two 
rectangular  pavilions,  connected  by  a  lofty  banquet-hall,  and 
adorned  externally  with  arcades  in  Florentine  style,  and  with 
medallions  and  reliefs  of  della  Robbia  ware  (1527,  by  Gadyer}. 

THE  LOUVRE.  By  far  the  most  important  of  all  the  ar- 
chitectural enterprises  of  this  reign,  in  ultimate  results,  if  not  in 
original  extent,  was  the  beginning  of  a  new  palace  to  replace  the 
old  Gothic  fortified  palace  of  the  Louvre.  To  this  task  Pierre 
Lescot  was  summoned  in  1542,  and  the  work  of  erection  actually 
begun  in  1546.  The  new  palace,  in  a  sumptuous  and  remarkably 
dignified  classic  style,  was  to  have  covered  precisely  the  area  of 
the  demolished  fortress.  Only  the  southwest  half,  comprising 
two  sides  of  the  court,  was,  however,  undertaken  at  the  outset 
(Fig.  184).  It  remained  for  later  monarchs  to  amplify  the  orig- 
inal scheme,  and  ultimately  to  complete,  late  in  the  last  cen- 
tury, the  most  extensive  and  beautiful  of  all  the  royal  residences 
of  Europe.  (See  Figs.  184,  186,  213.) 

Want  of  space  forbids  more  than  a  passing  reference  to  the 
rural  castles  of  the  nobility,  rivalling  those  of  the  king.  Among 
them  Bur)r,  La  Rochefoucauld,  Bournazel,  and  especially 
Azay-le-Rideau  (1520)  and  Chenonceaux  (1515-23),  may  be 
mentioned,  all  displaying  that  love  of  rural  pleasure,  that  hatred 
ot  the  city  and  its  confinement,  which  so  distinguish  the  French 
trom  the  Italian  Renaissance. 

OTHER  BUILDINGS.  The  H6tel-de-Ville  (town  hall),  of 
Paris,  begun  during  this  reign,  from  plans  by  Donicnico  di  Cortona 
(  ?),  and  completed  under  Henry  IV.,  was  the  most  important  edi- 
fice of  a  class  which  in  later  periods  numbered  many  interesting 


322 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


structures.  The  town  hall  of  Beaugency  (1527)  is  one  of  the 
best  of  minor  public  buildings  in  France,  and  in  its  elegant  treat- 
ment of  a  simple  two-storied  facade  may  be  classed  with  the 
Maison  Francois  I.,  at  Paris.  This  stood  formerly  at  Moret, 
whence  it  was  transported  to  Paris  and  re-erected  about  1830  in 

somewhat  modified 
form.  The  large  city 
houses  of  this  period 
are  legion;  we  can 
mention  only  the  Hc5tel 
Carnavalet  at  Paris; 
the  HcA)tel  Bourgthe- 
roude  at  Rouen;  the 
Hotel  d'Ecoville  at 
Caen;  the  archbishop's 
palace  at  Sens,  and  a 
number  of  houses  in 
Orleans.  The  Tomb 
cf  Louis  XIL,  at  St. 
Denis,  deserves  espe- 
cial mention  for  its 
fine  proportions  and 
beautiful  arabesques. 

THE  ADVANCED 
RENAISSANCE.  By  the 
middle  of  the  six- 
teenth century  the  new  style  had  lost  much  of  its  earlier  charm. 
The  orders,  used  with  increasing  frequency,  were  more  and  more 
conformed  to  antique  precedents.  Facades  were  Hatter  and 
simpler,  cornices  more  pronounced,  arches  more  Roman  in 
treatment,  and  a  heavier  style  of  carving  took  the  place  of  the  deli- 
cate arabesques  of  the  preceding  age.  The  reigns  of  Henry  II. 
(1547-59)  and  Charles  IX.  (1560-74)  were  especially  distin- 
guished by  the  labors  of  three  celebrated  architects:  Pierre  Lescot 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE   IN   FRANCE.        323 

(1515-78),  who  continued  the  work  on  the  southwest  angle  of  the 
Louvre;  Jean  Bullant  (1515-78),  to  whom  are  due  the  right  wing 
of  Ecouen  and  the  porch  of  colossal  Corinthian  columns  in  the 
left  wing  of  the  same,  built  under  Francis  I.;  and,  finally,  Phili- 
bert  de  VQrme  (1515-70).  Jean  Goujon  (1510-72)  also  executed 
during  this  period  most  of  the  remarkable  architectural  sculptures 
which  have  made  his  name  one  of  the  most  illustrious  in  the  an- 
nals of  French  art.  Chief  among  the  works  of  de  1'Orme  was  the 
palace  of  the  Tuileries,  built  under  Charles  IX.  for  Catherine 
de  Medicis,  not  far  from  the  Louvre,  with  which  it  was  ultimately 
connected  by  a  long  gallery.  Of  the  vast  plan  conceived  for  this 
palace,  and  comprising  a  succession  of  courts  and  wings,  only  a 
part  of  one  side  was  erected  (1564-72).  This  consisted  of  a  domi- 
cal pavilion,  flanked  by  low  wings  only  a  story  and  a  half  high, 
to  which  were  added  two  stories  under  Henry  IV.,  to  the  great 
advantage  of  the  design.  Another  masterpiece  of  his  was  the 
Chateau  d'Anet,  built  in  1552  by  Henry  II.  for  Diane  de  Poi- 
tiers, of  which,  unfortunately,  only  fragments  survive.  This 
beautiful  edifice,  while  retaining  the  semi-military  moat  and  bas- 
tions of  feudal  tradition,  was  planned  with  classic  symmetry, 
adorned  with  superposed  orders,  court  arcades,  and  rectangular 
corner-pavilions,  and  provided  with  a  domical  cruciform  chapel, 
the  earliest  of  its  class  in  France.  All  the  details  were  unusually 
pure  and  correct,  with  just  enough  of  freedom  and  variety  to  lend 
a  charm  wanting  in  later  works  of  the  period.  To  the  reign  of 
Henry  II.  belong  also  the  chateaux  of  Ancy-le-Franc,  Verneuil, 
Chantilly  (the  "  petit  chateau,"  by  Bullant),  the  banquet-hall  over 
the  bridge  at  Chenonceaux  (1556),  several  notable  residences  at 
Toulouse,  and  the  tomb  of  Francis  I.  at  St.  Denis.  The  chateaux 
of  Pailly  and  Sully,  distinguished  by  the  sobriety  and  monu- 
mental quality  of  their  composition,  in  which  the  orders  are  im- 
portant elements,  belong  to  the  reign  of  Charles  IX.,  together  with 
the  Tuileries,  already  mentioned. 

THE   CLASSIC   PERIOD:   HENRY  IV.       Under   this   energetic 


324 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


but  capricious  monarch  (1589-1610)  and  his  Florentine  queen, 
Marie  de  Medicis,  architecture  entered  upon  a  new  period  of 
activity  and  a  new  stage  of  development.  Without  the  charm 
of  the  early  Renaissance  or  the  stateliness  of  the  age  of  Louis 
XIV.,  it  has  a  touch  of  the  Baroque,  attributable  partly  to  the 
influence  of  Marie  de  Medicis  and  her  Italian  prelates,  and  partly 
to  the  Italian  training  of  many  of  the  French  architects.  The 


FIG.     185.  -  THE    LUXKMHUKG, 


great  work  of  this  period  was  the  extension  of  the  Tuileries  by  ./. 
B.  du  Ccrcean,  and  the  completion,  by  Metczcan  and'others,  of  'the 
long  gallery  next  the  Seine,  begun  under  Henry  II.,  with  the  view 
of  connecting  the  Tuileries  with  the  Louvre.  In  this  part  of  the 
work  colossal  orders  were  used  with  indifferent  effect.  Next  in 
importance  was  the  addition  to  Fontainebleau  of  a  great  court  to 
the  eastward,  whose  relatively  quiet  and  dignified  style  offers  less 
contrast  than  one  might  expect  to  the  other  wings  and  courts  dat- 

*  The  facade-  here  shown  is  modern,  but  reproduces  the  original 
garden-front  as  it  was  before,  the  enlargement  in  iS.jj  to  nearly 
double  the  original  area. 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE   IN   FRANCE.        325 

ing  from  Francis  I.  More  successful  architecturally  than  either 
of  the  above  \vas  the  Luxemburg  palace,  built  for  the  queen  by 
Salomon  DcKrossc,  in  1616  (Fig.  185).  Its  plan  presents  the  fav- 
orite French  arrangement  of  a  main  building  separated  from  the 
street  by  a  garden  or  court,  the  latter  surrounded  on  three  sides  by 
low  wings  containing  the  dependencies.  Externally,  rusticated 
orders  recall  the  garden-front  of  the  Pitti  at  Florence;  but  the 
scale  is  smaller,  and  the  projecting  pavilions  and  high  roofs  give 
it  a  grace  and  picturesqueness  wanting  in  the  Florentine  model. 
The  Place  Royale,  at  Paris,  and  the  chateau  of  Beaumesnil, 
illustrate  a  type  of  brick-and-stone  architecture  much  in  vogue  at 
this  time,  stone  quoins  decorating  the  windows  and  corners,  and 
the  orders  being  generally  omitted. 

Under  Louis  XIII.  the  Tuileries  was  extended  northward  and 
the  Louvre  as  built  by  Lescot  was  doubled  in  size  by  the  architect, 
/.  Lemercier,  the  Pavilion  de  1'Horloge  being  added  to  form  the 
centre  of  the  enlarged  court  facade. 

CHURCHES.  To  this  reign  belong  also  the  most  important 
churches  of  the  period.  The  church  of  St.  Paul-St.  Louis,  at 
Paris  (1627,  by  Derrand],  though  disfigured  by  an  overloaded  and 
uninteresting  front,  is  not  without  merit  in  its  interior  design  and 
proportions.  Its  internal  dome  is  the  earliest  in  Paris.  Far  supe- 
rior is  the  chapel  of  the  Sorbonne,a  well-designed  domical  church 
by  Jacques  Lemercier  (1590-1654),  with  a  sober  and  appropriate 
exterior  treated  with  superposed  orders.  It  was  begun  in  1635. 

In  the  same  general  style,  though  built  in  the  early  part  of  the 
following  reign,  are  the  churches  of  St.  Roch(  1653),  by  /.  Lcmcr- 
der  and  R.  de  Code,  and  St.  Sulpice,  by  L.  Ixvau  (c.  1660).  The 
latter  of  the  two  is  of  imposing  size.  All  four  churches  are 
marked  by  great  dignity  and  simplicity  of  internal  design.  Con- 
structed and  vaulted  wholly  in  stone,  they  avoid  the  pretentious 
sham  and  stucco  of  the  contemporary  Italian  churches,  but  the 
lack  of  painted  decorations  renders  them  somewhat  cold  and 
severe  in  effect  internally. 


326  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

PERIOD  OF  LOUIS  XIV.  This  was  an  age  of  remarkable 
literary  and  artistic  activity,  pompous  and  pedantic  in  many  of  its 
manifestations,  but  distinguished  also  by  productions  of  a  very 
high  order.  Although  contemporary  with  the  Italian  Baroque — 
Bernini  having  been  the  guest  of  Louis  XIV. — the  architecture  of 
this  period  was  free  from  the  wild  extravagances  of  that  style.  In 
its  often  cold  and  correct  dignity  it  resembled  rather  that  of  Pal- 
ladio,  making  large  use  of  the  orders  in  exterior  design,  and  tend- 
ing rather  to  monotony  than  to  overloaded  decoration.  In 
interior  design  there  was  more  of  lightness  and  caprice.  Papier- 
mache  and  stucco  were  freely  used  in  a  fanciful  style  of  relief 
ornamentation  by  scrolls,  wreaths,  shells,  etc.,  and  decorative 
panelling  was  much  employed.  The  whole  was  saved  from  trivi- 
ality only  by  the  controlling  lines  of  the  architecture  which  framed 
it.  But  it  was  better  suited  to  cabinet-work  or  to  the  prettinesses 
of  the  boudoir  than  to  monumental  interiors.  The  Galerie 
d'Apollon,  built  during  this  reign  over  the  Petite  Galerie  in  the 
Louvre,  escapes  this  reproach,  however,  by  the  sumptuous  dig- 
nity of  its  interior  treatment. 

VERSAILLES.  This  immense  palace,  built  about  an  already 
existing  villa  of  Louis  XIII.,  was  the  work  of  Lcrau  (1612-1670) 
and  /.  //.  Mansart  (1647-1708).  Its  erection,  with  the  laying 
out  of  its  marvellous  park,  almost  exhausted  the  resources  of  the 
realm,  but  with  results  quite  incommensurate  with  the  outlay. 
In  spite  of  its  vastness,  its  exterior  is  commonplace;  the  orders  are 
used  with  singular  monotony,  which  is  not  redeemed  by  the  deep 
breaks  and  projections  of  the  main  front.  There  is  no  control- 
ling or  dominant  feature;  there  is  no  adequate  entrance  or  ap- 
proach; the  grand  staircases  are  badly  placed  and  unworthily 
treated,  and  the  different  elements  of  the  plan  are  combined  with 
singular  lack  of  the  usual  French  sense  of  monumental  and  ra- 
tional arrangement.  The  chapel  is  by  far  the  best  single  feature- 
in  the  design. 

Far  more  successful  was  the  completion  of  the  Louvre,  in  1688, 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE  .  IN    FRANCE.        327 

from  the  designs  of  Claude  Perraidt  (1633-1688),  the  court  physi- 
cian, whose  plans  were  fortunately  adopted  in  preference  to  those 
of  Bernini.  For  the  east  front  he  designed  a  magnificent  Corin- 
thian colonnade  nearly  600  feet  long,  with  coupled  columns  upon 
a  plain  high  basement,  and  with  a  central  pediment  and  terminal 
pavilions  (Fig.  186).  The  whole  forms  one  of  the  most  imposing 
facades  in  existence;  but  it  is  a  mere  decoration,  obviously  de- 
signed for  the  adornment  of  the  open  square  in  front  of  it,  and 


FIG.    186. COLONNADE   OF   LOUVRE. 

having  no  practical  relation  to  the  building  behind  it.  Its  height 
required  the  addition  of  a  third  story  to  match  it  on  the  north  and 
south  sides  of  the  court,  which  as  thus  completed  quadrupled  the 
original  area  proposed  by  Lescot.  Fortunately  the  style  of  Les- 
cot's  work  was  retained  throughout  in  the  court  facades,  while 
externally  the  colonnade  was  recalled  on  the  reconstructed  south 
front  by  a  colossal  order  of  pilasters.  The  Louvre  as  completed 
by  Louis  XIV.  was  a  stately  and  noble  palace,  as  remarkable  for 
the  surpassing  excellence  of  the  sculptures  of  Jean  Goujon  as  for 
the  dignity  and  beauty  of  its  architecture.  Taken  in  connection 
with  the  Tuileries,  it  was  unrivalled  by  any  palace  in  Kurope 
except  the  Vatican. 


328 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


OTHER  BUILDINGS.  To  Louis  XIV.  is  also  due  the  nobly 
planned  but  externally  uninteresting  Hotel  des  Invalides  or 
veterans'  asylum,  at  Paris,  by  /.  H.  Mansart.  To  the  chapel  of 

this    institution    was    added, 
in   1680-1706,  the  celebrated 
Dome    of    the    Invalides,    a 
masterpiece     by     the     same 
architect.     In  plan   it   some- 
what   resembles    Bramante's 
scheme     for    St.     Peter's — a 
Greek     cross    with    domical 
chapels-   in    the    four    angles 
and  a  dome  over  the  centre. 
The  exterior  (Fig.  187),  with 
the  lofty  gilded  dome  on  a 
high  drum  adorned  with  en- 
gaged columns,  is  somewhat 
high    for    its    breadth, 
but    is    a    harmonious 
and  impressive  design; 
and     the     interior,     if 
somewhat   cold,  is  ele- 
gant and  well   propor- 
tioned.     The      chief 
innovation  in  the  design 
was  the  wide  separation 
of    the    interior    stone 
dome    from    the    lofty 

exterior  decorative  cupola  and  lantern  of  wood,  this  separation 
being  designed  to  meet  the  conflicting  demands  of  internal  and 
external  effect.  To  the  same  architect  is  due  the  formal  monot- 
ony of  the  Place  Vendome,  all  the  houses  surrounding  it  being 
treated  with  a  uniform  architecture  of  colossal  pilasters,  at  once 
monumental  and  inappropriate.  One  of  the  most  pleasing 


FIG.    187. DOME    OP    THE 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE    IN    FRANCE. 


329 


designs  of  the  time  is  the  Chateau  de   Maisons   (1658),  by 
F.    Mansart   (1598-1666),   uncle  of  J.   H.   Mansart.     In   this 
the  proportions  of  the  central  and  terminal  pavilions,  the  mass 
and  lines  of  the  steep  roof  a  la  Mansarde,  the   simple  and 
effective  use  of  the  orders,  and  the  refinement  of  all  the  details 
impart  a  grace  of  aspect  rare  in  contemporary  works.     The  same 
qualities  appear  in  his 
other  works,  as  in  the 
west  wing  at  Blois  for 
Gaston  d'Orleans  and 
in    the    Val-de-Grace, 
begun  by  him  in  1645 
but    continued    and 
completed    by    Lcmer- 
cicr,   Le  Mitel   and  G. 
Le     Due,     a     domical 
church     of     excellent 
proportions.     Many 
important       residences 
for    persons    of    noble 
rank  or    large    fortune 
were     erected     during 
this  reign,  among  which 
may  be  mentioned  the  earlier  portion  of  the   Palais  Royal, 
the  Hotel  Lambert  on  the  He  St.  Louis  by  Levau  (1645),  and 
the  extension  of  the  Hotel  Carnavalet  by  F.  Mansart.     The 
want  of  space  forbids  mention  of  other  buildings  of  this  period. 
THE  DECLINE.     Under  Louis  XV.  the  pedantry  of  the  classic 
period  gave  place  to  a  protracted  struggle  between  license  and  the 
severest  classical  correctness.     The  exterior  designs  of  this  time 
were  often  even  more  uninteresting  and  bare  than  under  Louis 
XIV.;     while,   on    the   other   hand,    interior   decoration    tended 
towards  an  unregulated  fancifulness  in  which  straight  lines  and 
right  angles  almost  disappeared  and  structural  considerations 


I»8. FACADE    OF    ST.    SULPICE,    PARIS. 


330 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


were  ignored.  There  was  originality  and  charm  in  much  of  this 
decoration,  but  it  too  often  degenerated  into  a  vulgar  extrava- 
gance. 

In  public  buildings  of  a  seriously  monumental  character,  how- 
ever, this  "  rocaille  "  decoration  was 
little  used,  and  a  severe  classicism 
manifests  itself  throughout.  The 
facade  of  St.  Sulpice  (Fig.  188)  at 
Paris,  built  by  Scrvandoni  in  1755, 
onto  the  church  already  referred 
to  on  page  325,  is  a  remarkably 
dignified  and  successful  composition. 
In  the  domical  church  of  the 
Pantheon  at  Paris,  begun  in  1755, 
by  Soufflol  (1713-1781),  the  greatest 
ecclesiastical  monument  of  its  time 
in  France,  this  classical  correctness 
dominates  the  interior  as  well  as 
the  exterior.  The  four  arms  of 
the  cross,  measuring  362  X  267  feet, 

are  dome-vaulted  and  provided  with  double  aisles  separated  by 
Corinthian  columns.  The  central  dome,  69  feet  in  diameter,  is  265 
feet  high,  surrounded  externally  by  a  superb  Corinthian  peristyle. 
It  comprises  three  shells,  all  of  stone,  the  intermediate  ovoid 
shell  serving  to  support  the  lantern.*  There  is  a  noble  portico 
of  eighteen  colossal  Corinthian  columns.  The  whole  structure  is 
notable  for  the  cold  perfection  of  its  classic  elegance. 

PUBLIC  SQUARES.  Much  attention  was  given  to  the  embel- 
lishment of  open  spaces  in  the  cities,  for  which  the  classic  style 
was  admirably  suited.  The  most  important  work  of  this  kind 
was  that  on  the  north  side  of  the  Place  de  la  Concorde,  Paris. 
This  splendid  square,  perhaps,  on  the  whole,  the  finest  in  F.urope 

*  In  the  peristyle  and  llie  triple  shell  Soufflol  evidently  applied 
suggestion  derived  from  St.  Paul's,  London  (see  p.  ,},?X,  Fig.  103). 


FIG.     189. PLAN    OF    PANTHEON, 

PARIS. 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE   IN   FRANCE.        331 


(though  many  of  its  best  features  belong  to  a  later  date),  was  at 
this  time  adorned  with  the  two  monumental  colonnades  by  Ga- 
briel (1698-1782).  These  colonnades,  which  form  the  decorative 
fronts  for  blocks  of  houses,  deserve  praise  for  the  beauty  of  their 
pro{>ortions  as  well  as 
for  the  excellent  treat- 
ment of  the  arcade  on 
which  they  rest,  and  of 
the  pavilions  at  the  ends. 
IN  GENERAL.  French 
Renaissance  architec- 
ture is  marked  by  good 
proportions  and  har- 
monious and  appropri- 
ate detail.  Its  most 
interesting  phase  was 
unquestionably  that  of 
Francis  I.,  so  far,  at 
least,  as  concerns  ex- 
terior design.  It  steadily 
progressed,  however,  in 
its  mastery  of  planning; 
and  in  its  use  of  pro- 
jecting pavilions 
crowned  by  dominant 

masses  of  roof,  it  succeeded  in  preserving,  even  in  severely 
classic  designs,  a  picturesqueness  and  variety  otherwise  impos- 
sible. Roofs,  dormers,  chimneys,  and  staircases  it  treated  with 
especial  success;  and  in  these  matters,  as  well  as  in  monu- 
mental dispositions  of  plan,  the  French  have  largely  retained 
their  pre-eminence  to  our  own  day. 

MONUMENTS:  (Mainly  supplementary  to  text.  Cli.  —  chateau  ; 
P.  =  palace;  C.  —  cathedral  ;  Clm.  =  church  ;  11.=  hotel;  T.  II. 
=  town  hall  or  hotel  dc  I'ille). 


fU~,.    190. KXTERIOR    OP    PANTHKON,    PARIS. 


332  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

TRANSITION:  Ch.  Blois,  E.  wing,  1499;  Ch.  Meillant;  Ch.  Chau- 
mont;  T.  H.  Amboisc,  1502-05. 

FRANCIS  I.:  Ch.  Nantouillet,  1517-25;  Ch.  Blois,  W.  wing  (af- 
terward demolished)  and  N.  wing,  1520-30;  H.  Lallemant,  Bourges, 
1520;  Ch.  Villers-Cotterets,  1520-59;  P.  of  Archbishop,  Sens,  1521- 
35;  P.  Fontainebleau  (Cour  Ovale,  Cour  d'Adieux,  Gallery  Francis 
!•»  1527-34;  Peristyle,  Chapel  St.  Saturnin,  1540-47,  by  Gillcs  Ic 
Breton;  Cour  du  Cheval  Blanc,  1527-31,  by  P.  Chambiges)  ;  H. 
Bernuy,  Toulouse,  1528-39;  P.  Granvelle,  Besangon,  1532-40;  T.  H. 
Niort,  T.  H.  Loches,  1532-43;  H.  de  Ligeris  (Carnavalet),  Paris, 
1544,  by  P.  Lcscot;  churches  of  Gisors,  nave  and  fagade,  1530;  La 
Dalbade,  Toulouse,  portal,  1530;  St.  Symphorien,  Tours,  1531; 
Tillieres,  1534-46. 

HENRY  II.,  CHARLES  IX.:  Fontaine  des  Innocents,  Paris,  1547-50, 
by  P.  Lcscot  and  /.  Goujon;  tomb  Francis  I.,  at  St.  Denis,  1555, 
by  Ph.  de  I'Ormc;  H.  Catelan,  Toulouse,  1555;  tomb  Henry  II., 
at  St.  Denis,  1560;  portal  S.  Michel,  Dijon,  1564;  Ch.  Sully,  1567; 
T.  H.  Arras,  1573;  P.  Fontainebleau  (Cour  du  Cheval  Blanc 
remodelled,  1564-66,  by  P.  Girard;  Cour  de  la  Fontaine,  same 
date)  ;  T.  H.  Besangon,  1582;  Ch.  Charleval,  1585,  by  /.  B.  dc  Ccr- 
ccau. 

STYLES  OF  HENRY  IV.  AND  Louis  XIII.:  P.  Fontainebleau  (Gal- 
erie  des  Cerfs,  Chapel  of  the  Trinity,  Baptistery,  etc.)  ;  P.  Tuileries 
(Pav.  de  Flore,  by  du  Ccrccait,  1590-1610;  long  gallery  continued)  ; 
Hotel  Vogue,  at  Dijon,  1607;  Place  Dauphine,  Paris,  1608;  P.  de 
Justice,  Paris,  Great  Hall,  by  S.  dc  Brossc,  1618;  H.  Sully,  Paris, 
1624-39;  P.  Royal,  Paris,  by  /.  Lcmcrcicr,  for  Cardinal  Richelieu, 
1627-39;  P.  Louvre  doubled  in  size,  by  the  same;  P.  Tuileries  (N. 
wing,  and  Pav.  Marsan,  long  gallery  completed)  ;  H.  Lambert, 
Paris;  T.  H.  Reims,  1627;  Ch.  Blois,  W.  wing  for  Gaston  d'Orleans, 
by  F.  Afansart,  1635;  fagade  St.  Etienne  du  Mont,  Paris,  1610;  of 
St.  Gervais,  Paris,  1616-21,  by  5".  dc  Brossc. 

STYLE  OF  Louis  XIV.:  T.  IT.  Lyons,  1646;  P.  Louvre,  F.  colon- 
nade and  court  completed,  1660-70;  Tuileries  altered  by  Le  Van, 
1664;  observatory  at  Paris,  1667-72;  arch  of  St.  Denis,  Paris,  1672, 
by  Hlondcl;  Arch  of  St.  Martin,  1074;  by  liitllcl :  l'anque  de 
France  (Hotel  Toulouse),  by  </<•  Colic,  II.  de  Luyne.  II.  Soubisc 
(1708-40,  partly  by  />'<»/?><;;;</),  all  in  Paris;  Ch.  Chantilly  ;  Ch.  de 
Taulay;  P.  St.  Cloud;  Place  des  Victoires.  1685;  Chu.  St.  Sulpice, 
Paris,  by  ].e  Vau  (fagade,  1755)  ;  Chu.  St.  Roch,  Paris,  1653,  by 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE   IN   FRANCE.         333 

Lcmercicr  and  dc  Cottc;  Notre  Dame  des  Victoires,  Paris,  1656, 
by  Le  Muct  and  Bruant. 

THE  DECLINE:  P.  Bourbon,  1772  (by  Lassurancc  and  Gabriel); 
T.  H.  Rouen;  Fontaine  de  Crenelle,  by  Bouchardon,  1739;  Halle 
aux  Bles  (recently  demolished),  1748;  ficole  Militaire,  1752-58,  by 
Gabriel;  P.  Louvre,  court  completed,  1754,  by  the  same ;  Madeleine 
begun,  1764  (redesigned  and  completed  early  in  igth  century  by 
I'ignon)  ;  H.  des  Monnaies  (Mint),  by  Antoine;  Ecole  de  Mede- 
cine,  1774.  by  Gondouin;  P.  Royal,  Great  Court,  1784,  by  Louis; 
Theatre  Frangais,  1784  (all  the  above  at  Paris)  ;  Grand  Theatre, 
Bordeaux,  1785-1800,  by  Louis;  Prefecture  at  Bordeaux,  by  the 
same;  Ch.  de  Compiegne,  1770,  by  Gabriel;  P.  Versailles,  theatre 
by  the  same ;  H.  Montmorency,  Soubise,  de  Varennes",  and  the  Petit 
Luxembourg,  all  at  Paris,  by  dc  Cottc;  public  squares  at  Nancy, 
Bordeaux,  Valenciennes,  Rennes,  Reims. 


CHAPTER    XXIII. 

RENAISSANCE    ARCHITECTURE    IN    GREAT    BRITAIN 
AND    THE   NETHERLANDS. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED:  As  before,  Fergusson,  Palustre.  Also, 
Belcher  and  Macartney,  Later  Renaissance  Architecture  in  Eng- 
land. Billings,  Baronial  and  Ecclesiastical  Antiquities  0}  Scot- 
land. Blomfield,  A  Short  History  of  Renaissance  Architecture  in 
England.  Britton,  Architectural  Antiquities  oj  Great  Britain. 
Campbell,  Vitruvius  Britannicus.  Ewerbeck,  Die  Renaissance 
in  Bclgien  und  Holland.  Galland,  Gcschichte  dcr  Hollandischcn 
Baukunst  im  Zcitallcr  dcr  Renaissance.  Gotch  and  Brown,  Ar- 
chitecture 0}  the  Renaissance  in  England.  Haupt,  Baukunst  dcr 
Renaissance  in  Portugal.  Loftie,  Inigo  Jones  and  Wren.  Nash, 
Mansions  of  England.  Papworth,  Renaissance  and  Italian 
Styles  of  Architecture  in  Great  Britain.  Richardson,  Architec- 
tural Remains  of  the  Reigns  of  Elizabeth  and  James  I.  Schayes, 
Ilistoire  de  ^architecture  en  Belgiquc. 

THE  TRANSITION.  The  architectural  activity  of  the  six- 
teenth century  in  England  was  chiefly  devoted  to  the  erection  of 
vast  country  mansions  for  the  nobility  and  wealthy  bourgeoise. 
In  these  seigniorial  residences  a  degenerate  form  of  the  Gothic, 
known  as  the  Tudor  style,  was  employed  during  the  reigns  of 
Henry  VII.  and  Henry  VIII.,  and  they  still  retained  much  of  the 
feudal  aspect  of  the  Middle  Ages.  This  style,  with  its  broad, 
square  windows  and  ample  halls,  was  well  suited  to  domestic 
architecture,  as  well  as  to  collegiate  buildings,  of  which  a  consid- 
erable number  were  erected  at  this  time.  Among  the  more  im- 
portant palaces  and  manor  houses  of  this  period  are  the  earlier 
parts  of  Hampton  Court,  Haddon  and  Hengreave  Halls,  and  the 
now  ruined  castles  of  Raglan  and  Wolterton. 


THE    RENAISSANCE   IN   GREAT   BRITAIN.  335 

ELIZABETHAN  STYLE.  Under  Elizabeth  (1558-160.})  the 
progress  of  classic  culture  and  the  employment  of  Dutch  and  Ital- 
ian artists  led  to  a  gradual  introduction  of  Renaissance  forms, 
which,  as  in  France,  were  at  first  mingled  with  others  of  Gothic 
origin.  Among  the  foreign  artists  were  the  versatile  Holbein 
from  Germany,  Trevigi  and  Torregiano  from  Italy,  and  Theodore 
Have,  Bernard  Jansen,and  Gerard  Chrismas  from  Holland.  The 
pointed  arch  disappeared,  and  the  orders  began  to  be  used  as  sub- 
ordinate features  in  the  decoration  of  doors,  windows,  chimneys 
and  mantels.  Open-work  balustrades  replaced  externally  the 
heavy  Tudor  battlements,  and  a  peculiar  style  of  carving  in  flat 
relief-patterns,  resembling  applique  designs  cut  out  with  the  jig- 
saw and  attached  by  nails  or  rivets,  was  applied  with  little  judg- 
ment to  all  possible  features.  Ceilings  were  commonly  finished 
in  plaster,  with  elaborate  interlacing  patterns  in  low  relief;  and 
this,  with  the  increasing  use  of  interior  woodwork,  gave  to  the 
mansions  of  this  time  a  more  homelike  but  less  monumental  as- 
pect internally.  English  architects,  like  Smithson  and  Thorpe, 
now  began  to  win  the  patronage  at  first  monopolized  by  foreign- 
ers. In  Wollaton  Hall  (1580),  by  Smithson,  the  orders  were 
used  for  the  main  composition  with  mullioned  windows,  much 
after  the  fashion  of  Longleat  House,  completed  a  year  earlier, 
by  his  master,  John  of  Padua.  During  the  following  period, 
however  (1590-1610),  there  was  a  reaction  toward  the  Tudor 
practice,  and  the  orders  were  again  relegated  to  subordinate  uses. 
Of  their  more  monumental  employment,  the  Gate  of  Honor  of 
Cains  College,  Cambridge,  is  one  of  the  earliest  examples.  Hard- 
wicke  and  Charlton  Halls,  and  Burghley  (Eig.  igi),  Ilatfield, 
and  Holland  Houses  are  noteworthy  monuments  of  the  style. 

JACOBEAN  STYLE.  During  the  reign  of  James  I.  (160^-25), 
details  of  (lassie  origin  came  into  more  general  use,  but  carica- 
tured almost  beyond  recognition.  The  orders,  though  much  em- 
ployed, were  treated  without  correctness  or  grace,  and  the  orna- 
ment was  unmeaning  and  heavy.  It  is  not  worth  while  to  dwell 


336 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


further  upon  this  style,  which  produced  no  important  public 
buildings,  and  soon  gave  way  to  a  more  rigid  classicism. 

CLASSIC  PERIOD.  If  the  classic  style  was  late  in  its  appear- 
ance in  England,  its  final  sway  was  complete  and  long-lasting. 
It  was  Inigo  Jones  (1572-1652)  who  first  introduced  the  correct 
and  monumental  style  of  the  Italian  masters  of  classic  design. 
For  Palladio,  indeed,  he  seems  to  have  entertained  a  sort  of  ven- 


KIG.    191. BURGHLEY    HOUSB. 

eration,  and  the  villa  which  he  designed  at  Chiswick  was  a  re- 
duced copy  of  Palladio's  Villa  Capra,  near  Vicenza.  This  and 
other  works  of  his  show  a  failure  to  appreciate  the  unsuitability  of 
Italian  conceptions  to  the  climate  and  tastes  of  Great  Britain ;  his 
efforts  to  popularize  Palladian  architecture,  without  the  re- 
sources which  Palladio  controlled  in  the  way  of  decorative  sculp- 
ture and  painting,  were  consequently  not  always  happy  in  their 
results.  His  greatest  work  was  the  design  for  a  new  Palace  at 
Whitehall,  London.  Of  this  colossal  scheme,  which,  if  com- 


THE   RENAISSANCE   IN   GREAT   BRITAIN. 


337 


pleted,  would  have  ranked  as  the  grandest  palace  of  the  time,  only 
the  Banqueting  Hall  (now  used  as  a  museum)  was  ever  built 
(1'ig.  192).     It  is  an  effective  composition  in  two  stories,  rusti- 
cated throughout  and  adorned  with  columns  and  pilasters,  and 
contains  a  fine  vaulted  hall  in  three  aisles.     The  plan  of  the  pal- 
ace, which  was  to  have  measured  1,152  X  720  feet,  was  excellent, 
largely  conceived  and  carefully  studied  in  its  details,  but  it  was 
wholly  beyond  the  re- 
sources of  the  kingdom. 
The    garden-front     of 
Somerset  House  (1632; 
demolished)    had     the 
same  qualities  of  sim- 
plicity and  dignity,  re- 
calling  the    works    of 
Sammichele.     Wilton 
House,    Coleshill,    the 
villa  at  Chiswick,  and 
St.  Paul's,  Covent  Gar- 
den, are  the  best  known 
of  his  works,  showing 
him  to  have  been  a  de- 
signer  of    ability,    but 
hardly  of  the  consum- 
mate genius  which  his  admirers  attribute  to  him. 

ST.  PAUL'S  CATHEDRAL.  The  greatest  of  Jones's  successors 
was  Sir  Christopher  Wren  (1632-1723),  principally  known  as  the 
architect  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  London,  built  to  replace  the 
earlier  Gothic  cathedral  destroyed  in  the  great  fire  of  1666.  It 
was  begun  in  1675,  and  its  designer  had  the  rare  good  fortune  to 
witness  its  completion  in  1710.  The  plan,  as  finally  adopted, 
retained  the  general  proportions  of  an  English  Gothic  church, 
measuring  480  feet  in  length,  with  transepts  250  feet  long,  and  a 
grand  rotunda  108  feet  in  diameter  at  the  crossing  (Kig.  193)- 


FIG.    192. BANQUETING    HALL,    WHITEHALL. 


333 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


The  style  was  strictly  Italian,  treated  with  sobriety  and  dignity,  if 
somewhat  lacking  in  variety  and  inspiration.  Externally  two 
stories  of  the  Corinthian  order  appear,  the  upper  story  being 
merely  a  screen  to  hide  the  clearstory  and  give  greater  height  and 
mass  to  the  long  exterior  of  the  cathedral, — an  architectural  pre- 
tense hardly  atoned  for  by  any  special  beauty  of  detail.  The 
dominant  feature  of  the  design  is  the  dome  over  the  central  area. 
It  consists  of  an  inner  shell,  reaching 
a  height  of  216  feet,  above  which  rises 
the  exterior  dome  of  wood,  surmounted 
by  a  stone  lantern,  the  summit  of 
which  is  360  feet  from  the  pavement 
(Fig.  194).  This  exterior  dome, 
springing  from  a  high  drum  sur- 
rounded by  a  magnificent  peristyle, 
gives  to  the  otherwise  somewhat  com- 
monplace exterior  of  the  cathedral  a 
signal  majesty  of  effect.  Next  to  the 
dome  the  most  successful  part  of  the 
design  is  the  west  front,  with  its  two- 
storied  porch  and  flanking  bell-turrets. 
Internally  the  excessive  relative  length, 
especially  that  of  the  choir,  detracts 
from  the  effect  of  the  dome,  and  the 

interior  detail  lacks  distinction.  The  much  discussed  mosaic 
decoration  of  the  choir,  added  in  recent  years,  has  somewhat 
relieved  the  former  bareness  of  this  interior.  The  central  area 
itself,  in  spite  of  the  awkward  treatment  of  the  four  smaller 
arches  of  the  eight  which  support  the  dome,  is  a  noble  design, 
occupying  the  whole  width  of  the  three  aisles,  like  the  Octagon 
at  Ely  (see  p.  228),  and  producing  a  striking  effect  of  amplitude 
and  grandeur.  The  dome  above  it  is  constructively  interesting 
from  the  employment  of  a  cone  of  brick  masonry  to  support 
the  stone  lantern  which  rises  above,  the  exterior  wooden  shell. 


FIG.  193. PLAN  OF  ST.  PAUL'S 

LONDON. 


THE    RENAISSANCE    IN    GREAT   UKITAIN. 


339 


The  lower  part  of  the  cone  forms  the  drum  of  the  inner  dome, 
its  contraction  upward  being  intended  to  produce  a  perspective 
illusion  of  increased  height. 

St.  Paul's  ranks  among  the  five  or  six  greatest  domical  buildings 
of  Europe,  and  is  the  most  imposing  modern  edifice  in  England. 

WREN'S  OTHER  WORKS.      Wren  was  conspicuously  success- 


FIG.    IQ4. EXTERIOR    OP    ST.    PAUL'S    CATHEDRAL. 

ful  in  the  designing  of  parish  churches  in  London.  St.  Stephen's, 
Walbrook,  is  the  most  admired  of  these,  with  a  dome  resting  on 
eight  columns.  Wren  may  be  called  the  inventor  of  the  English 
Renaissance  type  of  steeple,  in  which  a  conical  or  pyramidal  spire 
is  harmoniously  added  to  a  belfry  on  a  square  tower  with  classic- 
details.  The  steeple  of  Bow  Church,  Cheapside,  is  the  most 
successful  example  of  the  type.  In  secular  architecture  Wren's 
most  important  works  were  the  plan  for  rebuilding  London  after 
the  Great  Fire;  the  new  courtyard  of  Hampton  Court,  a  quiet  and 


340 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


dignified  composition  in  brick  and  stone ;  the  pavilions  and  colon- 
nade of  Greenwich  Hospital ;  the  Sheldonian  Theatre  at  Oxford, 
and  the  Trinity  College  Library  at  Cambridge.  Without  pro- 
found originality,  these  works  testify  to  the  sound  good  taste  and 
intelligence  of  their  designer. 

THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY.  The  Anglo-Italian  style  as 
used  by  Jones  and  Wren  continued  in  use  through  the  eighteenth 
century,  during  the  first  half  of  which  a  number  of  important 
country-seats  and  some  churches  were  erected.  Van  Brugh 
(1666-1726),  Hawksmoor  (1666-1736),  and  Gibbs  (1683-1754) 
were  then  the  leading  architects.  Van  Brugh  was  especially 
skilful  in  his  dispositions  of  plan  and  mass,  and  produced  in 
the  designs  of  Blenheim  and  Castle  Howard  effects  of  grandeur 
and  variety  of  perspective  hardly  equalled  by  any  of  his  contem- 
poraries in  France  or  Italy.  Blenheim,  with  its  monumental  plan 
and  the  sweeping  curves  of  its  front  (Fig.  195),  has  an  unusually 
palatial  aspect,  though  the  striving  for  picturesqueness  is  carried 
too  far.  Castle  Howard  is  simpler,  depending  largely,  for  effect 
on  a  somewhat  inappropriate  dome.  To  Hawksmoor,  his  pupil, 

are  due  St.  Mary's,  Wool- 
noth  (1715),  at  London, 
in  which  by  a  bold  rustica- 
tion of  the  whole  exterior 
and  by  windows  set  in 
large  recessed  arches  he 
was  enabled  to  dispense 
wholly  with  the  orders;  St. 
George's,  Bloomsbury;  the 
new  quadrangle  of  All 
Souls  at  Oxford,  and  some 

minor  works.  The  two  most  noted  designs  of  James  Gibbs  are 
St.  Martin's-in-the-Fields,  at  London  (1726),  and  the  Rad- 
cliffe  Library,  at  Oxford  (1747).  In  the  former  the  use  of  a 
Corinthian  portico  and  of  a  steeple  apparently  mounted  on  the 


FIG.    195. PLAN    OP   BLENHEIM. 


THE    RENAISSANCE    IN    GREAT   BRITAIN. 


341 


roof,  with  no  visible  lines  of  support  from  the  ground,  though 
c>i>en  to  criticism,  adds  greatly  to  the  splendor  of  the  edifice, 
which  is  marked  by  excellent  proportions  and  general  harmony 
and  appropriateness  of  design  (t  ig.  196).  The  Radcliffe  Library 
is  a  circular  domical  hall 
surrounded  by  a  lower  cir- 
cuit of  alcoves  and  rooms, 
the  whole  treated  with 
straightforward  simplicity 
and  excellent  proportions. 
Colin  Campbell,  Flitcroft, 
Kent  and  Wood,  contem- 
poraries of  Gibbs,  may  be 
dismissed  with  passing 
mention. 

Sir  William  Chambers 
(1726-96)  was  the  greatest 
of  the  later  eighteenth- 
century  architects.  His 
fame  rests  chiefly  on  his 
Treatise  on  Civil  Archi- 
tecture, and  the  extension 
and  remodelling  of  Somer- 
set House,  in  which  he 
retained  the  general  ordon- 
nance  of  Inigo  Jones's  de- 
sign, adapting  it  to  a  frontage  of  some  600  feet.  Robert 
Adam,  the  designer  of  Keddlestone  Hall  and  of  Edinburgh 
University;  the  two  Dances,  who  designed  the  Mansion  House 
and  Newgate  Prison,  at  London — the  latter  a  vigorous  and 
appropriate  composition  without  the  orders  (recently  demol- 
ished)— and  Sir  Joint  Soane,  the  architect  of  the  Bank  of 
England,  close  the  list  of  noted  architects  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  It  was  a  period  singularly  wanting  in  artistic  creative- 


PIG.    196. ST.    MARTIN'S-IN'-THE-PIELDS, 

LONDON. 


342  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

ness  and  spontaneity;  its  productions  were  nearly  all  respectable, 
and  often  dignified,  but  without  charm. 

BELGIUM.  As  in  all  other  countries  where  the  late  Gothic 
style  had  been  highly  developed,  Belgium  was  slow  to  accept  the 
principles  of  the  Renaissance  in  art.  Long  after  the  dawn  of  the 
sixteenth  century  the  Flemish  architects  continued  to  employ  their 
highly  florid  Gothic  alike  for  churches  and  town-halls,  with  which 
they  chiefly  had  to  do.  The  earliest  Renaissance  buildings  date 
from  1530-40,  among  them  being  the  HcA>tel  du  Saumon  at  Ma- 
lines,  at  Bruges  the  Ancien  Greffe,  by  Jean  Wallot,  and  at  Liege 
the  Archbishop's  Palace,  by  Borsct.  The  last  named,  in  the 
singular  and  capricious  form  of  the  arches  and  baluster-like  col- 
umns of  its  court,  reveals  the  taste  of  the  age  for  what  was  outre 
and  odd;  a  taste  partly  due,  no  doubt,  to  Spanish  influences,  as 
Belgium  was  in  reality  from  1506  to  1712  a  Spanish  province,  and 
there  was  more  or  less  interchange  of  artists  between  the  two 
countries.  The  Hotel  de  Ville,  at  Antwerp,  by  Cornelius  de 
Vriendt  or  Floris  (1518-75),  erected  in  1565,  is  the  most  impor- 
tant monument  of  the  Renaissance  in  Belgium.  Its  facade,  305 
feet  long  and  102  feet  high,  in  four  stories,  is  an  impressive  crea- 
tion in  spite  of  its  somewhat  monotonous  fenestration  and  the  in- 
artistic repetition  in  the  third  story  of  the  composition  and  propor- 
tions of  the  second.  The  basement  story  forms  an  open  arcade, 
and  an  open  colonnade  or  loggia  runs  along  under  the  roof,  thus 
imparting  to  the  composition  a  considerable  play  of  light  and 
shade,  enhanced  by  the  picturesque  central  pavilion  which  rises 
to  a  height  of  six  stories  in  diminishing  stages.  The  style  is 
almost  Palladian  in  its  severity,  but  in  general  the  Flemish  archi- 
tects disdained  the  restrictions  of  classic  canons,  preferring  a  more 
florid  and  fanciful  effect  than  could  be  obtained  by  mere  combina- 
tions of  Roman  columns,  arches  and  entablatures.  De  Vriendt's 
other  works  were  mostly  designs  for  altars,  tabernacles  and  the 
like;  among  them  the  rood-screen  in  Tournay  Cathedral.  His 
influence  may  be  traced  in  the  Hotel  de  Yille  at  Flushing  (1594). 


THE    RENAISSANCE    IN    HOLLAND. 


343 


The  ecclesiastical  architecture  of  the  Flemish  Renaissance  is 
almost  as  destitute  of  imjx>rtant  monuments  as  is  the  secular. 
Ste.  Anne,  at  Bruges,  fairly  illustrates  the  type,  which  is  charac- 
terised in  general  by  heaviness  of  detail  and  a  cold  and  bare  aspect 
internally.  The  Renaissance  in  Belgium  is  best  exemplified, 
after  all,  by  minor  works  and  ordinary  dwellings,  many  of  which 
have  considerable  artistic  grace,  though  they  are  quaint  rather 
than  monumental  (Fig. 
197).  Stepped  gables,  high 
dormers,  and  volutes  flank- 
ing each  diminishing  stage 
of  the  design,  give  a  certain 
piquancy  to  the  street  archi- 
tecture of  the  period. 

HOLLAND.  Except  in 
the  domain  of  realistic 
painting,  the  Dutch  have 
never  manifested  pre- 
eminent artistic  endow- 
ments, and  the  Renaissance 
produced  in  Holland  few 
monuments  of  consequence. 
It  lx.'gan  there,  as  in  many 
other  places,  with  minor 
works  in  the  churches,  due 

largely  to  Flemish  or  Italian  artists.  About  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century  two  native  architects,  Sebastian  van  Noye  and 
William  van  Noort,  first  popularized  the  use  of  carved  pilasters 
and  of  gables  or  steep  pediments  adorned  with  carved  scallop- 
shells,  in  remote  imitation  of  the  style  of  Francis  I.  The  prin- 
cipal monuments  of  the  age  were  town-halls,  and,  after  the  war 
of  independence  in  which  the  yoke  of  Spain  was  finally  broken 
(1566-70),  local  administrative  buildings — mints,  exchanges 
and  the  like.  The  Town  Hall  of  The  Hague  (1565),  with  its 


FIG.  197. —  RENAISSANCE  HOUSES,  BRUSSELS. 


344  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

stepped  gable  or  great  dormer,  its  consoles,  statues,  and  octag- 
onal turrets,  may  be  said  to  have  inaugurated  the  style  gener- 
ally followed  after  the  war.  Owing  to  the  lack  of  stone,  brick 
was  almost  universally  employed,  and  stone  imported  by  sea 
was  only  used  in  edifices  of  exceptional  cost  and  importance. 
Of  these  the  Town  Hall  at  Amsterdam  holds  the  first  place. 
Its  facade  is  of  about  the  same  dimensions  as  the  one  at 
Antwerp,  but  compares  unfavorably  with  it  in  its  monotony  and 
want  of  interest.  The  Leyden  Town  Hall,  by  the  Fleming, 
Lieven  de  Key  (1597),  the  Bourse  or  Exchange  and  the  Hanse 
House  at  Amsterdam,  by  Hendrik  de  Keyser,  the  Weighing 
House  at  Alkmaar  and  the  Market  at  Haarlem,  are  also  worthy 
of  mention,  though  many  lesser  buildings,  built  of  brick  combined 
with  enamelled  terra-cotta  and  stone,  possess  quite  as  much  artis- 
tic merit. 

DENMARK.  In  Denmark  the  monuments  of  the  Renaissance 
may  almost  be  said  to  be  confined  to  the  reign  of  Christian  IV. 
(1588-1648),  and  do  not  include  a  single  church  of  any  impor- 
tance. The  royal  castles  of  the  Rosenberg  (1610)  and  Christians- 
borg(i73i)at  Copenhagen, and  theFredericksborg  (1580-1624), 
the  latter  by  a  Dutch  architect,  are  interesting  and  picturesque  in 
mass,  with  their  fanciful  gables,  mullioncd  windows  and  numer- 
ous turrets,  but  can  hardly  lay  claim  to  beauty  of  detail  or  purity 
of  style.  The  Exchange  at  Copenhagen,  built  of  brick  and  stone 
in  the  same  general  style  (1619-40),  is  still  less  interesting  both  in 
mass  and  detail. 

The  only  other  important  Scandinavian  monument  deserving 
of  special  mention  in  so  brief  a  sketch  as  this  is  the  Royal  Palace 
at  Stockholm,  Sweden  (1698-1753),  due  to  a  foreign  architect, 
Nicodemus  de  Texsin.  It  is  of  imposing  dimensions,  and  al- 
though simple  in  external  treatment,  it  merits  praise  for  the 
excellent  disposition  of  its  plan,  its  noble  court,  imposing 
entrances,  and  the  general  dignity  and  appropriateness  of  its 
architecture. 


THE   RENAISSANCE   IN   DENMARK.  345 

MONUMENTS:  (in  addition  to  those  mentioned  in  text).  ENG- 
LAND, TUDOR  STYLE:  Several  palaces  by  Henry  VIII.,  no  longer 
extant ;  \Vestwood,  later  rebuilt ;  Gosfield  Hall ;  Harlaxton. — 
ELIZABETHAN:  Buckhurst ,  1565;  Kirby  House,  1570,  both  by 
Thorpe;  Cains  College,  1570-75,  by  Theodore  Have;  "The  Schools," 
Oxford,  by  Thomas  Holt,  1600;  Beaupre  Castle,  1600. — JACOBEAN: 
Tombs  of  Mary  of  Scotland  and  of  Elizabeth  in  Westminster  Ab- 
bey; Audsley  Inn;  Bolsover  Castle,  1613;  Heriot's  Hospital,  Edin- 
burgh, 1628. — CLASSIC  or  ANGLO-ITALIAN  :  St.  John's  College,  Ox- 
ford; Queen's  House,  Greenwich;  Coleshill ;  all  by  Inigo  Jones, 
1620-51;  Amesbury,  by  Webb;  Combe  Abbey;  Buckingham  and 
Montague  Houses ;  The  Monument,  London,  1670,  by  Wren ;  Tem- 
ple Bar,  by  the  same ;  Winchester  Palace,  1683 ;  Chelsea  College ; 
Towers  of  Westminster  Abbey,  1696 ;  St.  Clement  Dane's ;  St. 
James's,  Westminster ;  St.  Peter's,  Cornhill,  and  many  others,  all 
by  Wren. — i8TH  CENTURY  :  Seaton  Delaval  and  Grimsthorpe,  by 
Van  Brugh ;  Chatsworth ;  Wanstead  House,  by  Colin  Campbell ; 
Treasury  Buildings,  by  Kent. 

The  most  important  Renaissance  buildings  of  BELGIUM  and  HOL- 
LAND have  been  mentioned  in  the  text. 


CHAPTER    XXIV. 

RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE  IN    GERMANY,   SPAIN, 
AND    PORTUGAL. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED:  As  before,  Fergusson,  Palustre.  Also, 
von  Bezold,  Die  Baukunst  dcr  Renaissance  in  Deutschland,  Hol- 
land, Belgicn  und  Ddnemark  (in  Hdbuch.  d.  Arcli.).  Ewerbeck, 
Die  Renaissance  in  Bclgien  und  Holland.  Caveda  (tr.  Kugler), 
Geschichte  dcr  Baukunst  in  Spanicn.  Fritsch,  Dcnkmdlcr  dcr 
deutschen  Renaissance  (plates).  Galland,  Die  Renaissance  in 
Holland.  Haupt,  Baukunst  dcr  Renaissance  in  Portugal.  Jung- 
handel,  Die  Baukunst  Spanicns.  Lambert  und  Stahl,  Motive 
der  deutschen  Archilektur.  Liibke,  Geschichte  dcr  Renaissance 
in  Deutschland.  Ortwein,  Deutsche  Renaissance.  Prentice, 
Renaissance  ArcJiitecture  and  Ornament  in  Spain.  Uhde,  Ban- 
dcnkmdlcr  in  Spanicn.  Verdier  et .  Cattois,  ArcJiitecture  civile  et 
domcsliquc.  Villa  Amil,  Hispania  Arti'stica  y  Monumental. 

AUSTRIA:  BOHEMIA.  The  earliest  appearance  of  the  Re- 
naissance in  the  architecture  of  the  German  states  was  in  the 
eastern  provinces.  Before  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century 
Florentine  and  Milanese  architects  were  employed  in  Austria, 
Bohemia,  and  the  Tyrol,  where  there  are  a  number  of  palaces 
and  chapels  in  an  unmixed  Italian  style.  The  portal  of  the 
castle  of  Mahrisch-Trubau  dates  from  1492;  while  to  the  early 
years  of  the  sixteenth  century  belong  a  cruciform  chapel  at  Gran, 
the  remodelling  of  the  castle  at  Cracow,  and  the  chapel  of  the 
Jagellons  in  the  same  city — the  earliest  domical  structure  of  the 
German  Renaissance,  though  of  Italian  design.  The  Schloss 
Porzia  (1510),  at  Spital  in  Carinlhia,  is  a  line  quadrangular 
palace,  surrounding  a  court  with  arcades  on  three  sides,  in  which 
the  open  stairs  form  a  picturesque  interruption  with  their  ram- 


THE   RENAISSANCE    IN   GERMANY.  347 

pant  arches.  But  for  the  massiveness  of  the  details  it  might 
be  a  Florentine  palace.  In  addition  to  this,  the  famous  Arsenal 
at  Wiener-Neustadt  (1524),  the  portal  of  the  Imperial  Palace 
at  Vienna  (1552),  and  the  Castle  Schalaburg  on  the  Danube 
(1530-1601),  are  attributed  to  Italian  architects,  to  whom  must 
also  be  ascribed  a  number  of  important  works  at  Prague. 
Chief  among  these  the  Belvedere  (1536,  by  Paolo  delta  Stella), 
a  rectangular  building  surrounded  by  a  graceful  open  arcade, 
above  which  it  rises  with  a  second  story  crowned  by  a  curved 
roof;  the  Waldstein  Palace  (1621-29),  by  Giov.  Marini,  with  its 
imposing  loggia;  Schloss  Stern,  built  on  the  plan  of  a  six- 
pointed  star  (1459-1565)  and  embellished  by  Italian  artists  with 
stucco  ornaments  and  frescoes;  and  parts  of  the  palace  on  the 
Hradschin,  by  Scamozzi,  attest  the  supremacy  of  Italian  art  in 
Bohemia.  The  same  is  true  of  Styria,  Carinthia,  and  the 
Tyrol;  e.g.  Schloss  Ambras  at  Innsbruck  (1570). 

GERMANY:  PERIODS.  The  earliest  manifestation  of  the  Re- 
naissance in  what  is  now  the  German  Empire,  appeared  in  the 
works  of  painters  like  Diirer  and  Burkmair,  and  in  occasional 
buildings  previous  to  1525.  The  real  transformation  of  German 
architecture,  however,  hardly  began  until  after  the  Peace  of 
Augsburg,  in  1555.  From  that  time  on  its  progress  was  rapid, 
its  achievements  being  almost  wholly  in  the  domain  of  secular 
architecture — princely  and  ducal  castles,  town  halls  or  Rath- 
hditser,  and  houses  of  wealthy  burghers  or  corporations.  The 
Empire  was  a  mere  abstraction;  Germany  was  really  a  loose 
bundle  of  small  states,  most  of  them  having  but  limited  resources, 
so  that  anything  like  an  imperial  or  royal  architecture  was  im- 
possible. The  palaces  grew  up  at  haphazard  about  nuclei  of 
mediaeval  origin,  with  no  single  portion  to  compare  with  the 
stately  chateaux  of  the  French  kings.  Church  architecture  was 
neglected,  owing  to  the  Reformation,  which  turned  to  its  own 
uses  the  existing  churches,  while  the  Roman  Catholics  were  too 
impoverished  to  replace  the  edifices  they  had  lost. 


348  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

The  periods  of  the  German  Renaissance  are  less  well  marked 
than  those  of  the  French;  but  its  successive  developments  follow 
the  same  general  progression,  divided  into  three  stages: 

I.  THE  EARLY  RENAISSANCE,  1525-1600,  in  which  the  orders 
were  infrequently  used,  mainly  for  porches  and  for  gable  decora- 
tion.     The   conception   and    spirit  of  most  monuments   were 
still  strongly  tinged  with  Gothic  feeling. 

II.  THE   LATE   RENAISSANCE,  1600-1675,  characterized  by 
a  dry,  heavy  treatment,  in  which  too  often  neither  the  fanciful 
gayety  of  the  previous  period  nor  the  simple  and  monumental 
dignity  of  classic  design  appears.     Broken  curves,  large  scrolls, 
obelisks,  and  a  style  of  flat  relief  carving  resembling  the  Eliza- 
bethan are  common.     Occasional  monuments  exhibit  a  more 
correct  and  classic  treatment  after  Italian  models. 

III.  THE  DECLINE    or    BAROQUE  PERIOD,    1675-1800,  em- 
ploying the  orders  in  a  style  of  composition  oscillating  between 
the  extremes  of  bareness  and  of  Rococo  over-decoration.     The 
ornament  partakes  of  the  character  of  the  Louis  XV.  and  Italian 
Jesuit  styles,  being  most  successful  in  interior  decoration,  but 
externally  running  sometimes  to  the  extreme  of  unrestrained 
fancy. 

CHARACTERISTICS.  In  none  of  these  periods  do  we  meet 
with  the  sober,  monumental  treatment  of  the  Florentine  or 
Roman  schools.  A  love  of  picturesque  variety  in  masses  and 
sky-lines,  inherited  from  medieval  times,  appears  in  the  high 
roofs,  stepped  gables  and  lofty  dormers  which  are  universal. 
The  roofs  often  comprise  several  stories,  and  are  lighted  by  lofty 
gables  at  either  end,  and  by  dormers  carried  up  from  the  side 
walls  through  two  or  three  stories.  Gables  and  dormers  alike 
are  built  in  diminishing  stages,  each  step  adorned  with  a  console 
or  scroll,  and  the  whole  treated  with  pilasters  or  rolonnctles  and 
entablatures  breaking  over  each  support  (Fig.  198).  These 
roofs,  dormers,  and  gables  contribute  the  most  noticeable  ele- 
ment to  the  general  effect  of  German  Renaissance  build- 


THE    RENAISSANCE   IN   GERMANY. 


349 


ings,  and  are  commonly  the  best-designed  features  in  them. 
The  orders  are  scantily  used  and  usually  treated  with  utter  dis- 
regard of  classic  canons,  being  generally  far  too  massive  and 
overloaded  with  orna- 
ment. Oriels,  bay 
windows,  and  turrets, 
starting  from  corbels  or 
colonnettes,  or  rarely 
from  the  ground,  diver- 
sify the  facade,  and 
spires  of  curious  bulbous 
patterns  give  added 
piquancy  to  the  pictur- 
esque skyline.  The 
plans  seldom  had  the 
monumental  symmetry 
and  largeness  of  Italian 
and  French  models ; 
courtyards  were  often 
irregular  in  shape  and 
diversified  with  balcon- 
ies and  spiral  staircase 
turrets.  The  national 
leaning  was  always  to- 
ward the  quaint  and 
fantastic,  as  well  in  the 
decoration  as  in  the 
composition.  Gro- 
tesques, caryatids,  gatncs  (half-figures  terminating  below  in 
sheath-like  supports),  fanciful  rustication,  and  many  other  details 
give  a  touch  of  the  Baroque  even  to  works  of  early  date.  The 
same  principles  were  applied  with  better  success  to  interior 
decoration,  especially  in  the  large  halls  of  the  castles  and  town- 
halls,  and  many  of  their  ceilings  were  sumptuous  and  well- 


FIG.    198. — SCHLOSS    HXMKLSCHENBURG. 


35O  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

considered  designs,  deeply  panelled,  painted  and  gilded,  in 
wood  or  plaster. 

CASTLES.  The  Schloss  or  Burg  of  the  German  prince  or 
duke  retained  throughout  the  Renaissance  many  mediaeval 
characteristics  in  plan  and  aspect.  A  large  proportion  of  these 
noble  residences  were  built  upon  foundations  of  demolished 
feudal  castles,  reproducing  in  a  new  dress  the  ancient  round 
towers  and  vaulted  guard-rooms  and  halls,  as  in  the  Hartenfels 
at  Torgau,  the  Heldburg  (both  in  Saxony),  and  the  castle  of 
Trausnitz,  in  Bavaria,  among  many  others.  The  Castle  at 
Torgau  (1540)  is  one  of  the  most  imposing  of  its  class,  with 
massive  round  and  square  towers  showing  externally,  and  court 
facades  full  of  picturesque  irregularities.  In  the  great  Castle 
at  Dresden  the  plan  is  more  symmetrical,  and  the  Renaissance 
appears  more  distinctly  in  the  details  of  the  Georgenflligel 
(1530-50),  though  at  that  early  date  the  classic  orders  were  al- 
most ignored.  The  portal  of  the  Heldburg,  however,  built  in 
1562,  is  a  composition  quite  in  the  contemporary  French  vein, 
with  superposed  orders  and  a  crowning  pediment  over  a  massive 
basement. 

Another  important  series  of  castles  or  palaces  are  of  more 
regular  design,  in  which  the  feudal  traditions  tend  to  disappear. 
The  majority  belong  to  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  and  beginning 
of  the  seventeenth  centuries.  They  are  built  around  large  rec- 
tangular courts  with  arcades  in  two  or  three  stories  on  one  or  more 
sides,  but  rarely  surrounding  it  entirely.  In  these  the  segmental 
arch  is  more  common  than  the  semicircular,  and  springs  usually 
from  short  and  stumpy  Ionic  or  Corinthian  columns.  The 
rooms  and  halls  are  arranged  en  suite,  without  corridors,  and  a 
large  and  lofty  banquet  hall  forms  the  dominant  feature  of  the 
series.  The  earliest  of  these  regularly  planned  palaces  are  of 
Italian  design.  Chief  among  them  is  the  Residenz  at  Landshut 
('5.^  4.i)>  w'lh  a  thoroughly  Roman  plan,  by  pupils  of  Giulio 
Romano,  and  exterior  and  court  facades  of  great  dignity  treated 


THE    REXAISSAXCE    IN   GERMANY. 


351 


with  the  orders.  More  German  in  its  details,  but  equally  inter- 
esting, is  the  Fiirstenhof  at  Wismar,  in  brick  and  terra-cotta, 
by  Valentino  di  Lira  and  Van  A  ken  (1553);  while  in  the  Piasten- 
schloss  at  Brieg  (1547- 
72),  by  Italian  architects, 
the  treatment  in  parts 
suggests  the  richest  works 
of  the  style  of  Francis 
I.  In  other  castles  the 
segmental  arch  and 
stumpy  columns  or  piers 
show  the  German  taste, 
as  in  the  Plassenburg, 
by  K  as  par  Vise  her  (1554- 
64),  the  castle  at  Plagnitz, 
and  the  Old  Castle  at 
Stuttgart,  all  dating 
from  about  1550-55- 
Heidelberg  Castle,  in 
spite  of  its  mediaeval 
aspect  from  the  river 
and  its  irregular  plan, 
ranks  as  the  highest 
achievement  of  the 
German  Renaissance  in 
palace  design.  The  most 
interesting  parts  among 
its  various  wings  built 

at  different  dates— the  earlier  portions  still  Gothic  in  design  - 
are  the  Otto  Heinrichsbau  (1554)  and  the  Friedrichsbau 
(1601).  The  first  of  these  appears  somewhat  simpler  in  its  lines 
than  the  second,  by  reason  of  having  lost  its  original  dormer 
gables.  The  orders,  freely  treated,  are  superposed  in  three 
stories,  and  twin  windows,  niches,  statues,  gahies,  medallions 


199. THE    FRIEDRICHSHAU,    HEIDBLBKRG. 


352  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

and  profuse  carving  produce  an  effect  of  great  gayety  and  rich- 
ness. The  Friedrichsbau  (Fig.  199)  less  quiet  in  its  lines,  and 
with  high  scroll-gabled  and  stepped  dormers,  is  on  the  other 
hand  more  soberly  decorated  and  more  characteristically  Ger- 
man. The  Schloss  Hiimelschenburg  (Fig.  198)  is  designed  in 
somewhat  the  same  spirit,  but  with  even  greater  simplicity  of 
detail. 

TOWN  HALLS.  These  constitute  the  most  interesting  class 
of  Renaissance  buildings  in  Germany,  presenting  a  considerable 
variety  of  types,  but  nearly  all  built  in  solid  blocks  without  courts, 
and  adorned  with  towers  or  spires.  A  high  roof  crowns  the  build- 
ing, broken  by  one  or  more  high  gables  or  many-storied  dormers. 
The  majority  of  these  town  halls  present  facades  much  diversified 
by  projecting  wings,  as  at  Lemgo  and  Paderborn,  or  by  oriels  and 
turrets,  as  at  Altenburg  (1562-64);  and  the  towers  which  dom- 
inate the  whole  terminate  usually  in  bell-shaped  cupolas,  or  in 
more  capricious  forms  with  successive  swellings  and  contractions, 
as  at  Dantzic  (1587).  A  few,  however,  are  designed  with  monu- 
mental simplicity  of  mass;  of  these  that  at  Bremen  (1612)  is 
perhaps  the  finest,  with  its  beautiful  exterior  arcade  on  strong 
Doric  columns.  The  town  hall  of  Nuremberg  is  one  of  the  few 
with  a  court,  and  presents  a  facade  of  almost  Roman  simplicity 
(1613-19);  that  at  Augsburg  (1615)  is  equally  classic  and  more 
pleasing;  while  at  Schweinfurt,  Rothenburg  (1572),  Mialhausen, 
etc.,  are  others  worthy  of  mention. 

CHURCHES.  St.  Michael's,  at  Munich,  is  almost  the  only 
important  church  of  the  first  period  in  Germany  (1582),  but  it 
is  worthy  to  rank  with  many  of  the  most  notable  contemporary 
Italian  churches.  A  wide  nave,  covered  by  a  majestic  barrel 
vault,  is  llanked  by  side  chapels,  separated  from  each  other  by 
massive  piers  and  forming  a  series  of  gallery  bays  above.  There 
are  short  transepts  and  a  choir,  all  in  excellent  proportion  and 
treated  with  details  which,  if  somewhat  heavy,  are  appropriate 
and  reasonably  correct.  The  Marienkirche  at  Wolfenbiittel 


THE    RENAISSANCE   IN    GERMANY. 


353 


(1608)  is  a  fair  sample  of  the  parish  churches  of  the  second 
period.  In  the  exterior  of  this  church  pointed  arches  and  semi- 
Gothic  tracery  are  curiously  associated  with  heavy  rococo  carv- 
ing. The  simple  rectangular  mass,  square  tower,  and  portal 
with  massive  orders  and 
carving  are  characteristic 
features.  Many  of  the 
church-towers  are  well  pro- 
portioned and  graceful 
structures  in  spite  of  the 
fantastic  outlines  of  their 
spires.  One  of  the  best  and 
purest  in  style  is  that  of  the 
University  Church  at  Wiirz- 
burg  (1587-1600). 

HOUSES.  Many  of  the 
German  houses  of  the  six- 
teenth and  seventeenth  cen- 
turies would  merit  extended 
notice  in  a  larger  work,  as 
among  the  most  interesting 
lesser  monuments  of  the 
Renaissance.  Nuremberg 
and  Hildesheim  are  particu- 
larly rich  in  such  houses, 
built  either  for  private 
citizens  or  for  guilds  and 

corporations.  Not  a  few  of  the  half-timbered  houses  of  the 
time  are  genuine  works  of  art,  though  interest  chiefly  centres  in 
the  more  monumental  dwelling  of  stone.  In  this  domestic 
architecture  the  picturesque  quality  of  German  design  appears 
to  better  advantage  than  in  more  monumental  edifices,  and  their 
broadly  stepped  gables,  corbelled  oriels,  florid  portals  and  want 
of  formal  symmetry  imparting  a  peculiar  and  undeniable  charm. 


PHI.  2OO. ZWINC.ER  PALACE,  DKESDKN. 


354 


HISTORY    OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


The  Kaiserhaus  and  Wedekindsches  Haus  at  Hildesheim;  Fur- 
stenhaus  at  Leipzig;  Teller,  Hirschvogel,  and  Funk  houses  at 
Nuremberg;  the  Salt  House  at  Frankfurt,  and  Ritter  House  at 

Heidelberg,  are  a  few  of 
the  most  noted  among 
these  examples  of  domes- 
tic architecture. 

LATER  MONUMENTS. 
The  Zwinger  Palace  at 
Dresden  (1711-22),  by 
Poppelmann  (Fig.  200), 
is  the  most  elaborate  and 
wayward  example  of  the 
German  palace  architec- 
ture of  the  third  period. 
Its  details  are  of  the  most 
exaggerated  rococo  type, 
like  confectioner's  work 
done  in  stone;  and  yet 
the  building  has  an  air  of 
princely  splendor  which 
partly  atones  for  its  de- 
tails. Besides  this  palace, 
Dresden  possesses  in  the 
domical  Marienkirche 
(Fig.  201)  a  very  merito- 
rious example  of  late  de- 
sign. The  proportions  are  good,  and  the  detail,  if  not  interest- 
ing, is  at  least  inoffensive,  while  the  whole  is  externally  a 
dignified  and  rational  piece  of  work.  At  Vienna  are  a  number 
of  palaces  of  the  third  period,  more  interesting  for  their  beautiful 
grounds  and  parks  than  for  intrinsic  architectural  merit,  except 
in  some  of  the  interiors  where,  as  notably  in  the  superb  Im- 
perial Library  by  Fischer  i'on  1'lrlacli  (1650-1723)  the  wayward 


•CHURCH    OP    ST.    MARY    (MAKIEN- 
KIKCHIC),    DRESDEN. 


THE   RENAISSANCE   IX   SPAIN.  355 

capriciousness  of  the  Rococo  style  was  turned  to  splendid  dec- 
orative account.  As  in  Italy,  this  was  the  period  of  stucco, 
and  although  in  Vienna  this  cheap  and  perishable  material 
was  cleverly  handled,  and  the  ornament  produced  was  often 
quaint  and  effective,  the  results  lack  the  permanence  and  dig- 
nity of  true  building  in  stone  or  brick,  and  may  be  dismissed 
without  further  mention. 

In  minor  works  the  Germans  were  far  less  prolific  than  the 
Italians  or  Spaniards.  Few  of  their  tombs  were  of  the  first 
importance,  though  one,  the  Sebald  Shrine,  in  Nuremberg,  by 
Peter  Vischer  (1506-19),  is  a  splendid  work  in  bronze,  in  the 
transitional  style;  a  richly  decorated  canopy  on  slender  metal 
colonnettes  covering  and  enclosing  the  sarcophagus  of  the  saint. 
There  are  a  large  number  of  fountains  in  the  squares  of  Ger- 
man and  Swiss  cities  which  display  a  high  order  of  design, 
and  are  among  the  most  characteristic  minor  products  of  Ger- 
man art. 

SPAIN.  The  flamboyant  Gothic  style  sufficed  for  a  while 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  arrogant  and  luxurious  period 
which  in  Spain  followed  the  overthrow  of  the  Moors  and  the 
discovery  of  America.  But  it  was  inevitable  that  the  Renais- 
sance should  in  time  make  its  influence  felt  in  the  arts  of  the 
Iberian  peninsula,  largely  through  the  employment  of  Flemish 
artists.  In  jewelry  and  silverwork,  arts  which  received  a  great 
impulse  from  the  importation  of  the  precious  metals  from  the 
New  World,  the  forms  of  the  Renaissance  found  special  acceptance 
so  that  the  new  style  received  the  name  of  the  Plateresque  (from 
platcro,  silversmith).  This  was  a  not  inept  name  for  the  minutely 
detailed  and  sumptuous  decoration  of  the  early  Renaissance, 
which  lasted  from  1500  to  the  accession  of  Philip  II.  in  1556.  It 
was  characterized  by  surface-decoration  spreading  over  broad 
areas,  especially  around  doors  and  windows,  florid  escutcheons 
and  Gothic  details  mingling  with  delicately  chiselled  arabesques. 
Decorative  pilasters  with  broken  entablatures  and  carved  balus- 


356  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

ter-shafts  were  employed  with  little  reference  to  constructive 
lines,  but  with  great  refinement  of  detail,  in  spite  of  the  exuber- 
ant profusion  of  the  ornament. 

To  this  style,  after  the  artistic  inaction  of  Philip  II.'s  reign, 
succeeded  the  coldly  classic  style  practised  by  Berruguete  and 
Hcrrera  (1530-1597),  and  called  the  Griego-Romano.  In  spite 
of  the  attempt  to  produce  works  of  classical  purity,  the  buildings 
of  this  period  are  for  the  most  part  singularly  devoid  of  original- 
ity and  interest.  This  style  lasted  until  the  middle  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  and  in  the  case  of  certain  works  and  artists,  until 
its  close.  It  was  followed,  at  least  in  ecclesiastical  architecture, 
by  the  so-called  Churrigueresque,  a  name  derived  from  an  other- 
wise insignificant  architect,  Churrignera  (died  1725),  who  like 
Maderna  and  Borromini  in  Italy,  discarded  all  the  proprieties 
of  architecture,  and  rejoiced  in  the  wildest  extravagances  of  an 
untrained  fancy  and  debased  taste.  About  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  however,  the  advent  of  a  number  of  Italian 
architects  resulted  in  a  return  toward  classical  correctness. 

EARLY  MONUMENTS.  The  earliest  ecclesiastical  works  of 
the  Renaissance  period,  like  the  cathedrals  of  Salamanca,  and 
Segovia,  were  almost  purely  Gothic  in  style.  Not  until  1525 
did  the  new  forms  begin  to  dominate  in  cathedral  design.  The 
cathedral  at  Jaen,  by  Valdeh'ira  (1525),  an  imposing  structure 
with  three  aisles  and  side  chapels,  was  treated  internally  with  the 
Corinthian  order  throughout.  The  Cathedral  of  Granada  (1529, 
by  Diego  de  Siloe)  is  especially  interesting  for  its  great  domical 
sanctuary  70  feet  in  diameter,  and  for  the  largeness  and  dignity  of 
its  conception  and  details.  The  cathedral  of  Malaga,  the  church 
of  San  Domingo  at  Salamanca,  and  the  monastery  of  San  Giro- 
lamo  in  the  same  city  are  either  wholly  or  in  part  Plateresque,  and 
provided  with  portals  of  especial  richness  of  decoration.  Indeed, 
the  portal  of  S.  Domingo  practically  forms  the  whole  facade. 

In  secular  architecture  the  Hospital  of  Santa  Cruz  at  Toledo, 
by  Enrique  dc  Kgaz  (1504-16),  is  one  of  the  earliest  examples  of 


THE   RENAISSANCE    IN   SPAIN. 


357 


the  style.  Here,  as  also  in  the  University  at  Salamanca  (Fig. 
202),  the  portal  is  the  most  notable  feature,  suggesting  both 
Italiah  and  Trench  models  in  its  details.  The  great  College  at 
Alcala  de  Henares  is  another  important  early  monument  of  the 
Renaissance  (1500-17, 
by  Pedro  Gunnel).  In 
most  designs  the  pref- 
erence was  for  long 
fa9ades  of  moderate 
height,  with  a  base- 
ment showing  few 
openings,  and  a  bel 
etage  lighted  by  large 
windows  widely 
spaced.  Ornament 
was  chiefly  concen- 
trated about  the  doors 
and  windows,  except 
for  the  roof  balus- 
trades, which  were 
often  exceedingly  elab- 
orate. Occasionally  a 
decorative  motive  is 
spread  over  the  whole 
facade,  as  in  the  Casa 
de  las  Conchas  at 
Salamanca,  adorned 

with  cockle-shells  carved  at  intervals  all  over  the  front  —  a  bold 
and  effective  device;  or  the  Infantada  palace  with  its  spangling 
of  carved  diamonds.  The  courtyard,  or  patio,  was  an  indispen- 
sable feature  of  these  buildings,  as  in  all  hot  countries,  and  was 
surrounded  by  arcades  frequently  of  the  most  fanciful  design 
overloaded  with  minute  ornament,  as  in  the  Infantada  at 
Guadalajara,  the  Casa  de  Zaporta,  formerly  at  Saragossa  (now 


202. DOOR    OF    THE  UNIVERSITY,  SALAMANCA. 


358 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


removed  to  Paris;  Fig.  203),  and  the  Lupiana  monastery. 
The  patios  in  the  Archbishop's  Palace  at  Alcala  de  Henares 
and  the  Collegio  de  los  Irlandeses  at  Salamanca  are  of  simpler 

design;  that  of  the  Casa 
de  Pilatos  at  Seville  is 
almost  purely  Moorish. 
Salamanca  abounds  in 
buildings  of  this  period. 
THE  GRIEGO-ROMANO. 
The  more  classic  treat- 
ment of  architectural 
designs  by  the  use  of  the 
orders  was  introduced  by 
Alonzo  Berruguete  (1480- 
1561),  who  studied  in 
Italy  after  1503.  The 
Archbishop's  Palace  and 
the  Doric  Gate  of  San 
Martino,  both  at  Toledo, 
were  his  work,  as  well  as 
the  first  palace  at  Ma- 
drid. The  Palladio  of 
Spain  was,  however,  by 
Juan  de  Herrera,  the 
architect  of  Valladolid 
Cathedral,  built  under 
Philip  V.  This  vast  edifice 
follows  the  general  lines 
of  the  earlier  cathedrals 

of  Jaen  and  Granada,  but  in  a  style  of  classical  correctness  almost 
severe  in  aspect,  but  well  suited  to  the  grand  scale  of  the  church. 
The  masterpiece  of  this  period  was  the  monastery  of  thcEscurial, 
begun  by  Juan  Battisla  of  Toledo,  in  1563,  but  not  completed 
until  nearly  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  later.  Its  final  architec- 


: 

FIG.  203. CASA  DE  ZAPORTA:  COURTYARD. 


THE    RENAISSANCE   IN   SPAIN. 


359 


tural  aspect  was  largely  due  to  Herrera.     It  is  a  vast  rectangle  of 
740  X  580  feet,  comprising  a  complex  of  courts,  halls,  and  cells, 
dominated  by  the  huge  mass   of  the  chapel.     This  last  is  an  im- 
posing  domical   church   covering   70,000   square   feet,   treated 
throughout  with  the  Doric  order,  and  showing  externally  a  lofty 
dome  and  campaniles  with  domical  lanterns,  which  serve  to 
diversify   the  otherwise   monotonous  mass  of  the  monastery. 
What     the     Escurial 
lacks     in     grace     or 
splendor  is  at  least  in 
a   measure    redeemed 
by  its   majestic   scale 
and   varied   sky-lines. 
The     Palace     of 
Charles  V.  (Fig.  204), 
adjoining  the  Alham- 
bra     at     Granada, 
though  begun  as  early 
as  1527   by  Machuca, 
was    mainly    due    to 
Berruguete,  and  is  an 
excellent    example   of 
the  Spanish  Palladian 
style.     With    its    cir- 
cular court,  admirable 

proportions  and  well-studied  details,  this  often  maligned  edifice 
deserves  to  be  ranked  among  the  most  successful  examples  of 
the  style.  During  this  period  the  cathedral  of  Seville  received 
many  alterations,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  adjoining  Moorish 
tower  of  the  Giralda.  burned  in  1395,  was  rebuilt  by  Fernando 
Ruiz  in  the  prevalent  style,  and  with  considerable  elegance  and 
appropriateness  of  design. 

Of  the  Palace  at  Madrid,  rebuilt  by  Philip  V.  after  the  burn- 
ing of  the  earlier  palace   in   1734,  and   mainly  the  work  of   an 


2O4. — -PALACE    OF    CHARLES    V.,    GRANADA. 


360  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

Italian,  Ivara:  the  Aranjuez  palace  (1739,  by  Francisco  Herrera), 
and  the  Palace  at  San  Ildefonso,  it  need  only  be  said  that  their 
chief  merit  lies  in  their  size  and  the  absence  of  those  glaring  viola- 
tions of  good  taste  which  generally  characterized  the  successors 
of  Churriguera.  In  ecclesiastical  design  these  violations  of  taste 
were  particularly  abundant  and  excessive,  especially  in  the 
facades  and  in  the  sanctuary — huge  aggregations  of  misplaced 
and  vulgar  detail,  with  hardly  an  unbroken  pediment,  column, 
or  arch  in  the  whole,  yet  sometimes,  in  spite  of  their  extravagance, 
undeniably  picturesque.  Some  extreme  examples  of  this  style 
are  to  be  found  in  the  Spanish-American  churches  of  the  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth  centuries,  as  at  Chihuahua  and  many  other 
cities  in  Mexico,  at  Tucson  (Arizona),  and  other  places.  The 
least  offensive  features  of  the  churches  of  this  period  were  the 
towers,  usually  in  pairs  at  the  west  end,  some  of  them  showing 
excellent  proportions  and  good  composition  in  spite  of  their 
execrable  details. 

Minor  architectural  works,  such  as  the  rood  screens  in  the 
churches  of  Astorga  and  Medina  de  Rio  Seco,  and  many  tombs 
at  Granada,  Avila,  Alcala,  etc.,  give  evidence  of  superior  skill  in 
decorative  design,  where  constructive  considerations  did  not 
limit  the  exercise  of  the  imagination. 

PORTUGAL.  The  Renaissance  appears  to  have  produced 
few  notable  works  in  Portugal.  Among  the  chief  of  these  are  the 
Tower,  the  church,  and  the  Cloister  at  Belem.  These  display 
a  riotous  profusion  of  minute  carved  ornament,  with  a  free  com- 
mingling of  late  Gothic  details,  wearisome  in  the  end  in  spite  of  the 
beauty  of  its  execution  (1500-40?).  The  church  of  Santa  Cruz 
at  Coimbra,  and  that  of  Luz,  near  Lisbon,  are  among  the  most 
noted  of  the  religious  monuments  of  the  Renaissance,  while  in 
secular  architecture  the  royal  palace  at  Mafra  is  worthy  of 
mention  beside  the  Escurial  of  Madrid,  which  it  rivals  in  size 
and  architectural  dignity.  It  is  the  work  of  F.  Ludu'ig,  a  Ger- 
man architect  (1717-1730). 


THE   RENAISSANCE   IN   PORTUGAL.  361 

MONUMENTS:  (Mainly  supplementary  to  preceding  text.) 
AUSTRIA,  BOHEMIA,  etc.;  At  Prague,  Schloss  Stern,  1459-1565; 
Schwarzenburg  Palace,  1544;  Waldstein  Palace,  1629;  Salvator 
Chapel,  Vienna,  1515;  Schloss  Shalaburg,  near  Molk,  1530-1601; 
Standehaus,  Gratz,  1625.  At  Vienna :  Imperial  palace,  various 
dates;  Schwarzenburg  and  Lichtenstein  palaces,  i8th  century. 

GERMANY  AND  SWITZERLAND,  FIRST  PERIOD:  Schloss  Baden,  1510- 
20,  and  part  1569-82;  Schloss  Merseburg,  1514,  with  late  16th- 
century  portals;  Fuggerhaus  at  Augsburg,  1516;  castles  of  Neuen- 
stein,  1530-64;  Celle,  1532-46  (and  enlarged,  1665-70);  Dessau, 
r533;  Leignitz,  portal,  1533;  Landshut,  Neue  Residenz,  1536-43; 
Plagnitz,  1550;  Schloss  Gottesau,  1553-88;  castle  of  Giistrow,  1555- 
65;  Lucerne,  Rittersche  Palast  or  "  Schlossli,"  1557;  of  Oels,  1559- 
1616;  of  Bernburg,  1565;  of  Heiligenburg,  1569-87;  Munzhof  at 
Munich,  1575;  Lusthaus  (demolished)  at  Stuttgart,  1575;  Lands- 
hut,  Schloss  Trausnitz,  1578-80;  Wilhelmsburg  Castle  at  Schmal- 
kald,  1584-90;  castle  of  Hamelschenburg,  1588-1612. — SECOND 
PERIOD:  Zunfthaus  at  Basle,  1578,  in  advanced  style;  so  also  Juleum 
at  Helmstadt,  1593-1612;  gymnasium  at  Brunswick,  1592-1613; 
Spiesshof  at  Basle,  1600;  castle  at  Berlin,  1600-1616,  demolished  in 
great  part ;  castle  Bevern,  1603 ;  Schloss  Biickeburg  and  church, 
early  I7th  century;  Dantzic,  Zeughaus,  1605;  Wallfahrtskirche  at 
Dettelbach,  1613;  castle  Aschaffenburg,  1605-13;  Pal.  in  Greater 
Garden,  Dresden,  1679 ;  Schloss  Weikersheim,  1600-83 ;  Schloss 
Heiligenburg. — THIRD  PERIOD:  Zeughaus  at  Berlin,  1695;  palaces  by 
Schliiter  at  Charlottenburg,  and  at  Berlin,  1696-1706;  Catholic 
church,  Dresden,  1738,  by  Chiaveri ;  Bruchsal,  Ducal  Palace, 
1720-42;  Munich,  Amalienburg,  1734,  by  de  Cuvillie;  Asam- 
house,  1740;  Potsdam,  Stadt  Schloss,  1740,  by  Knobelsdorf;  Sans 
Souci,  1751-1768;  other  palace  buildings  1754-1775;  Berlin,  Royal 
Library,  1775;  the  Neue  Kirche,  1780.  (For  Classic  Revival,  see 
next  chapter.) — TOWN  HALLS:  At  Heilbronn,  1535,  Gorlitz,  1537; 
Posen,  1550;  Miilhauscn,  1552;  Cologne,  porch  with  Corinthian 
columns  and  Gothic  arches,  1569;  Liibeck  (Rathhaushalle),  1570; 
Schweinfurt,  1570;  Gotha,  1574;  Emden,  1574-76;  Lemgo,  1589; 
Neisse,  1604;  Nordhausen,  1610;  Paderborn,  1612-16;  Augsburg, 
1615-1620,  by  Holl ;  Gernsbach,  1617;  Magdeburg,  1691. 

SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL,  i6TH  CENTURY:  Monastery  San  Marcos  at 
Leon;  palace  of  the  Infanta,  Saragossa ;  Carcel  del  Corte  at  Baez ; 
Early  Renaissance  details  in  cloisters  of  Belem;  choir  of  Cath.  of 


362  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

Thomar,  Portugal,  1509;  pulpit  in  Sta.  Cruz,  Coimbra,  Portugal, 
1522;  Cath.  of  Malaga,  W.  front,  1538,  by  de  Siloe ;  N.  S.  da  Serra 
do  Pilar,  Gaya,  Portugal,  1540-1600;  Tavera  Hospital,  Toledo,  1541, 
by  de  Bustamente ;  Alcazar  at  Toledo,  1548;  Lonja  (Town  Hall)  at 
Saragossa,  1551;  Evora,  Portugal,  University,  1551-58;  cloister  Dos 
Filippes,  Thomar,  1557-62;  Casa  de  la  Sal,  Casa  Monterey,  and  Col- 
legio  de  los  Irlandeses,  all  at  Salamanca;  Town  Hall,  Casa  de  los 
Taveras  and  upper  part  of  Giralda,  all  at  Seville ;  Cath.  Se  Nova 
at  Coimbra,  1580;  Sao  Vicente,  Lisbon,  1570-1600. — 17111  CENTURY: 
Circular  cloister  N.  S.  do  Pilar,  Oporto,  1602;  Cathedral  del  Pilar, 
Saragossa,  1677;  Tower  del  Seo,  1685. — iSin  CENTURY:  Palace  and 
church  at  Mafra,  1717-30;  palace  at  Madrid,  1735;  at  Aranjuez, 
1739;  cathedral  of  Santiago,  1738;  Lonja  at  Barcelona,  1772. 


CHAPTER    XXV. 
THE   CLASSIC    REVIVALS    IN    EUROPE. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED:  As  before,  Fergusson.  Also  Chateau, 
Histoire  et  caracteres  de  I' architecture  en  France;  and  Ltibke, 
Geschichte  der  Architektur.  (For  the  most  part,  however,  re- 
course must  be  had  to  the  general  histories  of  architecture,  and  to 
monographs  on  special  cities  or  buildings.) 

THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY.  By  the  end  of  the  seventeenth 
century  the  Renaissance,  properly  speaking,  had  run  its  course 
in  Europe.  Having  wearied  in  turn  of  the  restraints  of  pure 
classicism  and  the  extravagances  of  the  Baroque,  it  had  exhausted 
the  springs  of  original  invention.  Taste  rapidly  declined  before 
the  growth  of  the  industrial  and  commercial  spirit  in  the  eigh- 
teenth century.  The  ferment  of  democracy  and  the  disquiet  of 
far-reaching  political  changes  had  begun  to  preoccupy  the  minds 
of  men  to  the  detriment  of  all  artistic  creation,  in  the  absence  of 
which  taste  tended  to  swing  back  toward  the  safe  standards  of 
classic  models.  But  the  demand  was  for  a  literal  copying  of  the 
arcades  and  porticos  of  Rome,  to  serve  as  frontispieces  for  build- 
ings in  which  modern  requirements  should  be  accommodated  to 
these  antique  exteriors,  instead  of  controlling  the  design.  The 
result  was  a  manifest  gain  in  the  splendor  of  the  streets  and 
squares  adorned  by  these  highly  decorative  frontispieces,  but  at 
the  expense  of  convenience  and  propriety  in  the  buildings  them- 
selves. While  this  academic  spirit  too  often  sacrificed  logic  and 
originality  to  an  arbitrary  symmetry  and  to  the  supposed  canons 
of  Roman  design,  it  also,  on  the  other  hand,  led  to  a  statelincss 


364  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

and  dignity  in  the  planning,  especially  in  the  designing  of  vesti- 
bules, stairs,  and  halls,  which  render  many  of  the  public  buildings 
it  produced  well  worthy  of  study.  The  architecture  of  the 
Roman  Revival  was  pompous  and  artificial,  but  seldom  trivial, 
and  its  somewhat  affected  grandeur  was  a  welcome  relief  from 
the  dullness  or  extravagance  of  the  styles  it  replaced. 

THE  GREEK  REVIVAL.  The  Roman  revival  began,  how- 
ever, near  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  to  be  displaced  in 
England  and  Germany  by  the  Greek  Revival,  the  result  of  a 
newly  awakened  interest  in  the  long-neglected  monuments  of 
Attic  art  which  the  discoveries  of  Stuart  and  Revett — sent  out  in 
1732  by  the  London  Society  of  Dilettanti — had  once  more  made 
known  to  the  world.  It  led  to  a  veritable  jurore  in  England  for 
Greek  Doric  and  Ionic  columns,  which  were  applied  indiscrimin- 
ately to  every  class  of  buildings,  with  utter  disregard  of  propriety. 
The  British  taste  was  at  this  time  at  its  lowest  ebb,  and  failed  to 
perceive  the  poverty  of  Greek  architecture  when  deprived  of  its 
proper  adornments  or  carving  and  sculpture,  which  were  singu- 
larly lacking  in  the  British  examples.  Nevertheless  the  Greek 
style  in  England  had  a  long  run  of  popular  favor,  yielding  only 
toward  the  middle  of  the  last  century  to  the  so-called  Victorian 
Gothic,  a  revival  of  mediaeval  forms.  In  Germany  the  Greek 
Revival  was  characterized  by  a  more  cultivated  taste  and  a  more 
rational  application  of  its  forms,  which  were  often  freely  modified 
to  suit  modern  needs.  In  France,  where  the  Roman  Revival 
under  Louis  XV.  had  produced  some  notable  results  (see  p.  330), 
and  where  the  influence  of  the  Royal  School  of  Fine  Arts  (Ecolc 
dcs  Beaux-Arts)  tended  to  perpetuate  the  principles  of  Roman  de- 
sign, the  Greek  Revival  found  no  footing.  The  Greek  forms 
were  seen  to  be  too  severe  and  intractable  for  present  require- 
ments. About  1830,  however,  a  modified  style  of  design,  known 
since  as  the  Nco-Grcr,  was  introduced  by  the  exertions  of  a  small 
coterie  of  talented  architects;  and  though  its  own  life  was  short, 
it  profoundly  influenced  French  art  in  the  direction  of  freedom 


TFIE   CLASSIC    REVIVALS   IN    EUROPE.  365 

and  refinement  for  a  long  time  afterward.  In  Italy  there  was 
hardly  anything  in  the  nature  of  a  true  revival  of  either  Roman 
or  Greek  forms.  The  few  important  works  of  the  late  eighteenth 
and  early  nineteenth  centuries  were  conceived  in  the  spirit  of  the 
late  Renaissance,  and  took  from  the  prevalent  revival  of  classicism 
elsewhere  merely  a  greater  correctness  of  detail,  not  any  radical 
change  of  form  or  spirit. 
ENGLAND.  In  Great  Britain  the  Palladian  style  of  Wren 


FIC,.    205. BRITISH   MUSEUM,    LONDON. 


and  Gibbs  and  their  successors  continued  until  superseded 
by  the  Greek  revival,  but  not  without  a  distinct  tendency 
toward  classic  Roman  types.  The  Royal  Exchange  ( r  789,  re- 
stored 1846) — and  the  Mansion  House  (17.^0  by  Dance)  in 
London  are  examples  of  design  in  the  Roman  spirit;  and  public 
buildings  in  other  cities,  notably  in  Dublin  and  Bath,  show 
the  same  tendency.  Little  by  little  Greek  models  began  to 
supersede  the  Roman.  The  first  fruit  of  the  new  movement 
seems  to  have  been  the  Bank  of  England  at  London,  by 


366 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


Sir  John  Soane  (1788).  In  this  edifice  the  Greco-Roman  order 
of  the  round  temple  at  Tivoli  was  closely  copied,  and  applied 
to  a  long  facade,  too  low  for  its  length  and  with  no  sufficient 
stylobate,  but  fairly  effective  with  its  recessed  colonnade  and 
unpierced  walls.  The  British  Museum,  nearly  sixty  years 
later,  by  Robert  Smirke  (Fig.  205),  was  a  more  ambitious  essay  in 
a  more  purely  Greek  style.  Its  colossal  Ionic  colonnade  was, 
however,  a  mere  frontispiece,  applied  to  a  badly  planned  and 
commonplace  building,  from  which  it  cut  off  needed  light.  The 
more  modest  but  appropriate  columnar  facade  to  the  Fitzwilliam 


FIG.  206. — ST.  GEORGE'S  HALL,  LIVERPOOL. 

Museum  at  Cambridge,  by  Basevi,  was  a  more  successful  attempt 
in  the  same  direction,  better  proportioned  and  avoiding  the  incon- 
gruity of  modern  windows  in  several  stories;  but  it  is  quite  as 
Roman  as  it  is  Greek.  Windows  have  always  been  the  stumbling- 
block  of  the  revived  Greek  style.  The  difficulties  they  raise  are 
avoided,  however,  in  buildings  presenting  but  two  stories,  the 
order  being  applied  to  the  upper  story,  upon  a  high  stylobate 
serving  as  a  basement.  The  High  School  and  the  Royal  In- 
stitution at  Edinburgh, by  Hamilton,  are  for  this  reason,  if  for  no 
other,  superior  to  the  British  Museum  and  other  many-storied 
Anglo-Greek  edifices.  In  spite  of  all  difficulties,  however,  the 
Knglish  extended  the  applications  of  the  style  with  doubtful 
success  not  only  to  all  manner  of  public  buildings,  but  also  to 


THE   CLASSIC    REVIVALS   IN   EUROPE.  367 

country  residences.  Carlton  House,  Bowden  Park,  and  Grange 
House  are  instances  of  this  misapplication  of  Greek  forms. 
Neither  did  it  prove  more  tractable  for  ecclesiastical  purposes. 
St.  Pancras's  Church  at  London,  and  several  churches  by 
Tfwmson  (1817-75),  m  Glasgow,  though  interesting  as  experi- 
ments in  such  adaptation,  are  not  to  be  commended  for  imitation. 
The  most  successful  of  all  British  Greek  designs  is  St.  George's 
Hall  at  Liverpool  (Fig.  206)  by  Elmes  (1809-1846)  whose  im- 
posing peristyle  and  porches  are  sufficiently  Greek  in  spirit  and 
detail  to  class  it  among  the  works  of  the  Greek  Revival.*  But  its 
great  hall  and  its  interior  composition  are  really  Roman  and  not 
Greek,  emphasizing  the  teaching  of  experience  that  Greek  archi- 
tecture does  not  lend  itself  to  the  exigencies  of  modern  civiliza- 
tion to  nearly  the  same  extent  as  the  Roman. 

On  the  whole  the  most  successful  products  of  the  Greek  re- 
vival were  minor  works,  especially  sepulchral  monuments. 
Among  the  best  of  these  are  two  in  Edinburgh,  to  the  memory 
respectively  of  Rol>ert  Burns  and  Dugald  Stewart,  both  inspired 
from  the  monument  of  Lysicrates  (Fig.  38)  though  diverging 
widely  from  its  detailed  design. 

GERMANY.  During  the  eighteenth  century  the  classic  revival 
in  Germany,  which  at  first  followed  Roman  precedents  (as  in 
the  columns  carved  with  spirally  ascending  reliefs  in  front  of  the 
church  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  at  Vienna,  by  Fischer  von 
Erlach),  was  directed  into  the  channel  of  Greek  imitation  by  the 
literary  works  of  Winckelmann,  Lessing,  Goethe,  and  others, 
as  well  as  by  the  interest  aroused  by  the  discoveries  of  Stuart  and 
Revett.  The  Brandenburg  Gate  at  Berlin  (1784  by  Schmidt), 
was  the  earliest  realization  in  architecture  of  this  revived  Hellen- 
ism, and  one  of  its  most  successful  applications  to  civic  purposes. 
Without  precisely  copying  any  Greek  structure,  it  was  evidently 
inspired  from  the  Athenian  I'ropyla-a,  and  nothing  in  its  purpose 

*  The  building  was  continued  by  Rawlinson  and  completed  by 
Cockcrcll  after  Elnies'  death. 


368 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


is  foreign  to  the  style  employed.  The  greatest  activity  in  the 
style  came  later,  however,  and  was  greatly  stimulated  by  the 
achievements  of  Fr.  Schinkcl  (1781-1841),  one  of  the  greatest  of 
modern  German  architects.  While  in  the  domical  church  of  St. 
Nicholas  at  Potsdam  he  employed  Roman  forms  in  a  modern- 
ized Roman  conception,  and  followed  in  one  or  two  other  build- 
ings the  principles  of  the  Renaissance,  his  predilections  were 
for  Greek  architecture.  His  masterpiece  was  the  Museum  at 
Berlin,  with  an  imposing  portico  of  18  Ionic  columns  (Fig.  207). 
This  building  with  its  fine  rotunda  was  excellently  planned, 
and  forms,  in  conjunction  with  the  New  Museum  by  Stiihler 
(1843-55),  a  n°ble  palace  of  art,  to  whose  monumental  require- 
ments and  artistic  purpose  the  Greek  colonnades  and  pediments 
were  not  inappropriate.  Schinkel's  greatest  successor  was  Leo 
von  Klenze  (1784-1864),  whose  more  textual  reproductions 
of  Greek  models  won  him  great  favor  and  wide  employment. 


FIG.    207. — THE   OLD   MUSEUM,    BERLIN. 

The  Walhalla  near  Ratisbon  is  a  modernized  Parthenon,  inter- 
nally vaulted  with  glass;  in  spite  of  its  elegance,  but  too  obvious 
a  plagiarism  externally,  and  internally  too  tin-Hellenic,  to  be 
greatly  admired.  The  Ruhmeshalle  at  Munich,  a  double  L 
partly  enclosing  a  colossal  statue  of  Bavaria,  and  devoted  to  the 
commemoration  of  Bavaria's  great  men,  is  copied  from  no  Greek 


THE   CLASSIC    REVIVALS   IN   EUROPE. 


369 


building,  though  purely  Greek  in  design  and  correct  to  the 
smallest  detail.  In  the  Glyptothek  (Sculpture  Gallery),  in  the 
same  city,  the  one  distinctively  Greek  feature  introduced  by 
Klenze,  an  Ionic  portico,  is  also  the  one  inappropriate  note  in  the 
design.  The  Propylaea  at  Munich,  by  the  same  (Fig.  208),  and. 
the  Court  Theatre  at  Berlin,  by  Schinkel,  are  other  important 


VIC,.    208. THE    PROPYLAEA,    MUNICH. 

examples  of  the  style.  Schinkel's  genius  was  remarkably  suc- 
cessful in  adapting  Greek  details  to  the  exigent  difficulties  of 
theatre  design,  and  there  is  in  the  last-named  edifice  no  sugges- 
tion of  copying  any  known  Greek  building. 

In  Vienna  the  one  notable  monument  of  the  Classic  Revival 
is  the  Reichsrathsgebaude  or  Parliament  House,  by  Th.  Han- 
sen  (1843),  an  imposing  two-storied  composition  with  a  lofty 
central  colonnade  and  lower  side-wings,  harmonious  in  general 
proportions  and  pleasingly  varied  in  outline  and  mass. 

In  general,  the  Greek  Revival  in  Germany  presents  the  aspect 
of  a  sincere  striving  after  beauty,  on  the  part  of  a  limited  number 
of  artists  of  great  talent,  misled  by  the  idea  that  the  forms  of  a 
dead  civilization  could  be  galvanized  into  new  life  in  the  service 


37O  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

of  modern  needs.  The  result  was  disappointing,  in  spite  of  the 
excellent  planning,  admirable  construction  and  carefully  studied 
detail  of  these  buildings,  and  the  movement  here  as  elsewhere  was 
foredoomed  to  failure. 

FRANCE.  In  France  the  Classic  Revival,  as  we  have  seen,  had 
made  its  appearance  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XV.  in  a  number 
of  important  monuments  which  expressed  the  protest  of  their 
authors  against  the  caprice  of  the  Rococo  style  then  in  vogue. 
The  colonnades  of  the  Garde-Meuble,  the  facade  of  St.  Sulpice, 
and  the  coldly  beautiful  Pantheon  (Figs.  188,  190),  testified  to 
the  conviction  in  the  most  cultured  minds  of  the  time  that  Roman 
grandeur  was  to  be  attained  only  by  copying  the  forms  of  Roman 
architecture  with  the  closest  possible  approach  to  correctness. 
The  Grand  Theatre,  at  Bordeaux  (1785,^  by  Victor  Louis),  one 
of  the  largest  and  finest  theatres  in  Europe,  was  another  product 
of  this  movement,  its  stately  colonnade  forming  one  of  the  chief 
ornaments  of  the  city.  Under  Louis  XVI.  there  was  a  temporary 
reaction  from  this  somewhat  pompous  affectation  of  antique 
grandeur;  but  there  were  few  important  buildings  erected  during 
that  unhappy  reign;  the  Petit  Trianon  by  Percicr  and  the 
Great  Court  of  the  Palais  Royal  by  V.  Louis  are  the  most  notable 
monuments  of  this  reign.  The  reaction  showed  itself  most 
effectively  in  a  more  delicate  and  graceful  style  of  interior  decora- 
tion. It  was  reserved  for  the  Empire  to  set  the  seal  of  official 
approval  on  the  Roman  Revival.  The  Arch  of  Triumph  of  the 
Carrousel,  behind  the  Tuilerics,  by  Percier  and  Fontaine,  the 
magnificent  Arc  de  1'Etoile,  at  the  summit  of  the  Avenue  of  the 
Champs  Elysees,  by  Chalgrin;  the  wing  begun  by  Napoleon  to 
connect  the  Tuileries  with  the  Louvre  on  the  land  side,  and  the 
church  of  the  Madeleine,  by  Vignon,  erected  as  a  temple  to  the 
heroes  of  the  Grande  Armee,  were  all  designed,  in  accordance 
with  the  expressed  will  of  the  Emperor  himself,  in  a  style  as 
Roman  as  the  requirements  of  each  case  would  permit.  All 
these  monuments,  begun  between  1806  and  1809,  were  completed 


THE   CLASSIC    REVIVALS    IN    EUROPE. 


371 


after  the  Restoration.     The  Arch  of  the  Carrousel  is  a  close 
copy  of  Roman  models  carried  out  with  great  elegance;   that  of 
the    Etoile    (Fig.    209)    is   a   much   more    original   design,   of 
colossal  dimensions.     Its  admirable    proportions,  simple  com- 
position and  striking  sculptures  give  it  a  place  among  the  noblest 
creations  of  its  class.    The  Madeleine  (Fig.  210),  externally  a 
Roman   Corinthian 
temple  of  the  larg- 
est    size,    presents 
internally     an     al- 
most   Byzantine 
conception  with  the 
three     pendentive 
domes  that  vault  its 
vast  nave,  but   all 
the  details  are  Ro- 
man.      However 
suitable  for  a  pan- 
theon    or     mauso- 
leum,    it     seems 
strangely    inappro- 
priate as  a  design 
for   a    Christian 


church.     To    these 
monuments   should 

be  added  the  Bourse  or  Exchange,  by  Brongniart,  heavy 
in  spite  of  its  Corinthian  peristyle,  and  the  river  front  of  the 
Corps  Le"gislatif,  added  to  the  rear  of  the  Palais  Bourbon 
by  Am'/,  one  of  the  very  few  extant  examples  of  a  dodec- 
astyle  portico  with  a  pediment.  All  of  these  designs  are 
characterized  by  great  elegance  of  detail  and  excellence  of 
execution,  and  however  inappropriate  in  style  to  modern  uses, 
they  add  immensely  to  the  splendor  of  the  French  capital.  Un- 
questionably no  feature  can  take  the  place  of  a  Greek  or  Roman 


FIO.    209. ARC    DK    L'fiTflll. 


372 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


colonnade  as   an  embellishment  for  broad  avenues  and  open 
squares,  or  as  the  termination  of  an  architectural  vista. 

The  Greek  revival  took  little  hold  of  the  Parisian  imagination. 
Its  forms  were  too  cold,  too  precise  and  fixed,  too  intractable  to 
modern  requirements  to  appeal  to  the  French  taste.  It  counts 
but  one  notable  monument,  the  church  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul, 
by  Hittorff,  who  sought  to  apply  to  this  design  the  principles  of 


FIO.    2IO. THE    MADELEINE,    PARIS. 


Greek  external  polychromy;  but  the  frescoes  and  ornaments 
failed  to  withstand  the  Parisian  climate,  and  were  finally  erased. 
The  Neo-Grec  movement  already  referred  to,  initiated  by  Due, 
Duban,  and  Labrouste  about  1830,  aimed  only  to  introduce  into 
modern  design  the  spirit  and  refinement,  the  purity  and  delicacy 
of  Greek  art,  not  its  forms  (Fig.  211).  Its  chief  monuments  were 
the  remodelling,  by  Due,  of  the  Palais  de  Justice,  of  which 
the  new  west  facade  and  the  hall  behind  it  are  the  most  striking 
features;  the  beautiful  Library  of  the  Ecole  des  Beaux- Arts, 
by  Duban;  the  Library  of  Ste.  Genevieve,  by  Labrouste,  in 


THE   CLASSIC    REVIVALS    IN    EUROPE. 


which  a  long  facade  is  treated  without  a  pilaster  or  column,  simple 
arches  over  a  massive  basement  forming  the  dominant  motive, 
while  in  the  interior  a  system  of  iron  construction  with  gla/ced 
domes  controls  the 
design;  and  the  com- 
memorative Colonne 
Juillet,  by  Due,  the 
most  elegant  and  ap- 
propriate of  all  modern 
memorial  columns. 
All  these  buildings,  be- 
gun between  1830  and 
1850  and  completed 
at  various  dates,  are 
distinguished  by  a  re- 
markable purity  and 
freedom  of  conception 
and  detail,  quite  un- 
fettered by  the  artificial 
trammels  of  the  official 
academic  style  then 
prevalent. 

THE  CLASSIC  RE- 
VIVAL ELSEWHERE. 
The  other  countries  of 
Eurojxj  have  little  to 
show  in  the  way  of  imitations  of  classic  monuments  or  repro- 
ductions of  Roman  colonnades.  In  Italy  the  church  of  S. 
Francesco  di  Paola,  at  Naples,  in  quasi-imitation  of  the  Pan- 
theon at  Rome,  with  wing-colonnades,  and  the  Superga,  at 
Turin  (1706,  by  Ivara);  the  facade  of  the  San  Carlo  Theatre, 
at  Naples,  and  the  Braccio  Nuovo  of  tin-  Vatican  (1817,  by 
Stern)  are  the  monuments  which  come  the  nearest  to  the 
spirit  and  style  of  the  Roman  Revival.  \Vt  in  each  of  these 


Fir,.    21 1. — DOORWAY,    fiCOLE    DKS    BEAUX-ARTS, 
PARIS. 


374 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


there  is  a  large  element  of  originality  and  freedom  of  treat- 
ment. 

A  reflection  of  the  Munich  school  is  seen  in  the  modern  public 
buildings  of  Athens,  designed  in  some  cases  by  German  architects, 
and  in  others  by  native  Greeks.  The  University,  the  Museum 
buildings,  the  Academy  of  Art  and  Science,  and  other  edifices 
exemplify  fairly  successful  efforts  to  adapt  the  severe  details  of 

classic  Greek  art  to  modern 
windowed  structures.  They 
suffer  somewhat  from  the 
too  liberal  use  of  stucco  in 
place  of  marble,  and  from 
the  conscious  affectation  of 
an  extinct  style.  But  they 
are  for  the  most  part  pleas- 
ing and  monumental  de- 
signs, appropriate  to  their 
surroundings,  and  adding 
greatly  to  the  beauty  of  the 
modern  city. 

In  RUSSIA,  during  and 
after  the  reign  of  Peter  the 
Great  (1689-1725),  there 

appeared  a  curious  mixture  of  styles.  A  style  analogous  to 
'the  Jesuit  in  Italy  and  the  Churrigueresque  in  Spain  was  gen- 
erally prevalent,  but  it  was  in  many  cases  modified  by  Mus- 
covite traditions  into  nondescript  forms  like  those  of  the  later 
buildings  of  the  Kremlin,  at  Moscow,  or  the  less  extravagant 
Citadel  Church  and  Smolnoy  Alonastery  at  St.  Petersburg. 
Along  with  this  heavy  and  barbarous  style,  which  prevails  gener- 
ally in  the  numerous  palaces  of  the  capital,  finished  in  stucco  with 
atrocious  details,  a  more  severe  and  classical  spirit  is  met  with. 
The  church  of  the  Greek  Rite  at  St.  Petersburg  combines  a 
Roman  domical  interior  with  an  exterior  of  the  Greek  Doric 


212.- ST.    ISAAC  S    CATHEDRAL,    ST. 

PETERSBURG. 


THE   CLASSIC    REVIVALS    IN   EUROPE.  375 

order.  The  Church  of  Our  Lady  of  Kazan  has  a  semicircular 
colonnade  projecting  from  its  transept,  copying  as  nearly  as  may 
l>e  the  colonnades  in  front  of  St.  Peter's.  But  the  greatest  classic 
monument  in  Russia  is  the  Cathedral  of  St.  Isaac  (Fig.  212),  at 
St.  Petersburg,  a  vast  rectangular  edifice  with  four  Roman  Co- 
rinthian pedimental  colonnades  projecting  from  its  faces,  and  a 
dome  with  a  peristyle  crowning  the  whole.  Despite  many  de- 
fects of  detail,  and  the  use  of  cast  iron  for  the  dome,  which  pre- 
tends to  be  of  marble,  this  is  one  of  the  most  impressive  churches 
of  its  size  in  Europe.  Internally  it  displays  the  costliest  materials 
in  extraordinary  profusion,  while  externally  its  noble  colonnades 
go  far  to  redeem  its  bare  attic  and  the  material  of  its  dome.  The 
Palace  of  the  Grand  Duke  Michael,  which  reproduces,  with 
improvements,  Gabriel's  colonnades  of  the  Garde  Meuble  at 
Paris  on  its  garden  front,  is  a  nobly  planned  and  commendable 
design,  agreeably  contrasting  with  the  debased  architecture  of 
many  of  the  public  buildings  of  the  city.  The  Admiralty  with 
its  Doric  pilasters,  and  the  New  Museum,  by  von  Klenze  of  Mu- 
nich, in  a  skilfully  modified  Greek  style,  with  effective  loggias,  are 
the  only  other  monuments  of  the  classic  revival  in  Russia  which 
can  find  mention  in  a  brief  sketch  like  this.  Both  are  notable 
and  in  many  respects  admirable  buildings,  in  part  redeeming  the 
vulgarity  which  is  unfortunately  so  prevalent  in  the  architecture 
of  St.  Petersburg. 

MONUMENTS:  The  principal  monuments  of  the  Classic  Revival 
have  been  referred  to  in  the  foregoing  text,  but  the  following, 
among  others,  are  worthy  of  mention:  Custom  House,  London,  by 
Laing,  181.3-17;  Colleges  of  Physicians  and  of  Surgeons.  London,  by 
Smirkc  and  Barry,  1^5-35;  University  College,  London,  by  H'il- 
kins;  Villa  Greenougli,  Regent's  Park,  London  ;  Library  and  Walker 
Art  Gallery,  Liverpool;  Public  Library,  Manchester;  Potsdamer 
Thor,  Herlin,  by  Schmidt;  Berlin  Opera  House,  1844,  by  Langhaus; 
Old  Public  Library,  Berlin. 


CHAPTER    XXVI. 

RECENT  ARCHITECTURE  IN  EUROPE. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED:  As  before,  Chateau,  Fergusson.  Also 
Barqui,  L1  Architecture  moderne  en  France. — Berlin  und  seine 
Bauten  (and  a  series  of  similar  works  on  the  modern  buildings  of 
other  German  cities).  Boileau,  Les  preludes  de  I' architecture  du 
XXe  siecle.  Chabat,  La  brique  et  la  terre  cuite.  Daly,  Architec- 
ture privee  du  XIXe  siecle.  Gamier,  Le  nouvel  Opera.  Gourlier, 
Choix  d 'edifices  publics.  Jackson,  Modern  Gothic  Architecture. 
Jaffe,  Neubauten  in  Grossbritanien.  Lambert  und  Stahl,  Mod- 
erne  Architektur.  Licht,  Architektur  Dcutschlands;  Architektur 
der  Gegenwart.  Liibke,  Denkmdler  der  Kunst.  Liitzow  und 
Tischler,  Wiener  Neubauten.  Muthesius,  Die  Neuere  Kirchliche 
Kunst  in  England.  Narjoux,  Monuments  eleves  par  la  "cille  de 
Paris,  1850-1880.  Riickwardt,  Fac,aden  und  Details  moderner 
Bauten. — Sammelmappe  heworragenden  Concurrenz-Entu'iir/en. 
Sedille,  LJ  Architecture  moderne.  Selfridge,  Modern  French  Archi- 
tecture. Statham,  Modern  Architecture.  Villars,  England,  Scot- 
land, and  Ireland  (tr.  Henry  Frith).  Consult  also  Transactions 
0}  the  Royal  Institute  of  Britisli  Architects,  and  the  leading  archi- 
tectural journals  of  recent  years. 

MODERN  CONDITIONS.  The  nineteenth  century  was  pre- 
eminently an  age  of  industrial  progress.  Its  most  striking  ad- 
vances were  along  mechanical,  scientific,  and  commercial  lines. 
As  a  result  of  this  material  progress  the  general  conditions  of 
mankind  in  civilized  countries  have  undoubtedly  been  greatly 
bettered.  Popular  education  and  the  printing-press  have  also 
raised  the  intellectual  level  of  society,  making  learning  the 
privilege  of  even  the  poorest.  Intellectual,  scientific,  and  com- 
mercial pursuits  have  thus  largely  absorbed  those  energies  which 
in  other  ages  found  exercise  in  the  creation  of  artistic  forms  and 


RECENT   ARCHITECTURE   IN   EUROPE.  377 

objects.  The  critical  and  sceptical  spirit,  the  spirit  of  utilitar- 
ianism and  realism,  has  tended  to  check  the  free  and  general  de- 
velopment of  the  creative  imagination,  at  least  in  the  plastic  arts. 
While  in  poetry  and  music  there  have  been  great  and  noble 
achievements,  the  plastic  arts,  including  architecture,  have  only 
of  late  years  attained  a  position  at  all  worthy  of  the  intellectual 
advancement  of  the  times. 

Nevertheless  the  artistic  spirit  has  never  been  wholly  crushed 
out  by  the  untoward  pressure  of  realism  and  commercialism. 
Unfortunately  it  has  repeatedly  been  directed  in  wrong  channels. 
Modern  archaeology  and  the  publication  of  the  forms  of  historic 
art  by  books  and  photographs  have  too  exclusively  fastened 
attention  upon  the  details  of  extinct  styles  as  a  source  of  inspira- 
tion in  design.  The  whole  range  of  historic  art  is  brought  within 
our  survey,  and  while  this  has  on  the  one  hand  tended  toward 
the  confusion  and  multiplication  of  styles  in  modern  work,  it  has 
on  the  other  sometimes  led  to  a  slavish  adherence  to  historic 
precedent  or  a  literal  copying  of  historic  forms.  Modern  archi- 
tecture has  thus  oscillated  between  the  extremes  of  archaeological 
servitude  and  of  an  unreasoning  eclecticism.  In  the  hands  of 
men  of  inferior  training  the  results  have  been  deplorable  trav- 
esties of  all  styles,  or  meaningless  aggregations  of  ill-assorted 
forms. 

An  important  factor  in  this  demoralization  of  architectural 
design  has  been  the  development  of  new  constructive  methods, 
especially  in  the  use  of  iron  and  steel.  It  has  been  impossible  for 
modern  designers,  in  their  treatment  of  style,  to  keep  pace  with 
the  rapid  changes  in  the  structural  use  of  metal  in  architecture. 
The  roofs  of  vast  span,  largely  composed  of  glass,  which  modern 
methods  of  trussing  have  made  possible-  for  railway  stations, 
armories,  and  exhibition  buildings;  the  immense  unencumbered 
spaces  which  may  be  covered  by  them;  the  introduction  and  de- 
velopment, especially  in  the  United  States,  of  the  post-and-girdcr 
system  of  construction  for  high  buildings  in  which  the  external 


3/8  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

walls  are  a  mere  screen  or  filling-in;  these  have  revolutionized 
architecture  so  rapidly  and  completely  that  architects  are  still 
struggling  and  groping  to  find  the  solution  of  many  of  the  prob- 
lems of  style,  scale,  and  composition  which  they  have  brought 
forward. 

Within  the  last  forty  years,  however,  architecture  has,  despite 
these  new  conditions,  made  notable  advances.  The  artistic 
emulation  of  repeated  international  exhibitions,  the  multiplication 
of  museums  and  schools  of  art,  the  general  advance  in  intelligence 
and  enlightenment,  have  all  contributed  to  this  artistic  progress. 
There  appears  to  be  more  of  the  artistic  and  intellectual  quality 
in  the  average  architecture  of  the  present  time,  on  both  sides  of  the 
Atlantic,  than  ever  before  since  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  The  futility  of  the  archaeological  revival  of  extinct 
styles  is  generally  recognized.  New  conditions  are  gradually 
procuring  the  solution  of  the  very  problems  they  raise.  Historic 
precedent  sits  more  lightly  on  the  architect  than  formerly,  and 
the  essential  unity  of  principle  underlying  all  good  design  is 
coming  to  be  better  understood. 

FRANCE.  It  is  in  France,  Germany  (including  Austria),  and 
England  that  the  architectural  progress  of  this  period  in  Europe 
has  been  most  marked.  We  have  already  noticed  the  results 
of  the  classic  revivals  in  these  three  countries.  Speaking  broadly, 
it  may  be  said  that  in  France  the  influence  of  the  Ecole  dcs  Beaux- 
Arts,  while  it  has  tended  to  give  greater  unity  and  consistency  to 
the  national  architecture,  and  has  exerted  a  powerful  influence 
in  behalf  of  refinement  of  taste  and  correctness  of  style,  has  also 
stood  in  the  way  of  a  free  development  of  new  ideas.  French 
architecture  has  generally  until  recent  years  adhered  to  the  princi- 
ples of  the  Renaissance,  though  the  style  has  been  modified  by 
various  influences.  The  first  of  these  was  the  Neo-Grec  move- 
ment, alluded  to  in  the  last  chapter,  which  broke  the  grip  of 
Roman  tradition  in  matters  of  detail  and  gave  greater  elasticity 
to  the  national  style.  Next  should  be  mentioned  the  Gothic 


RECENT   ARCHITECTURE   IN   EUROPE. 


379 


movement  represented  by  Viollet-le-Duc,  Lassus,  Ballu,  and 
their  followers.  Beginning  about  1845,  it  produced  compara- 
tively few  notable  buildings,  but  gave  a  great  impulse  to  the 
study  of  mediaeval  archaeology  and  the  restoration  of  mediaeval 
monuments.  The  churches  of  Stc.  Clothilde  and  of  St.  Jean 
de  Belleville,  at  Paris,  and  the  reconstruction  of  the  Chateau  de 
Pierrefonds,  were  among  its  direct  results.  Indirectly  it  led  to  a 
freer  and  more  rational  treatment  of  constructive  forms  and 
materials  than  had  prevailed  with  the  academic  designers.  The 


GaJer/e 


Fill.    213. PLAN    OP    LOUVRE    AND   TUILERIES,    PARIS. 

A,  A,  the  Old  Louvre,  so  called;  B,  />,  the  Xew  Louvre. 

church  of  St.  Augustin,  by  Bollard,  at  Paris,  illustrates  this  in 
its  use  of  iron  and  brick  for  the  dome  and  vaulting,  and  the  College 
Chaptal,  by  E.  Train,  in  its  decorative  treatment  of  brick  and 
tile  externally.  The  general  adoption  of  iron  for  roof-trusses 
and  for  the  construction  of  markets  and  similar  buildings  tended 
further  in  the  same  direction,  the  Halles  Centrales  at  Paris, 
by  Baltard  (1846),  being  a  notable  example.  The  French  have 
eversince  this  early  masterpiece  of  ferric  architecture  led  the  world 
in  the  artistic  handling  of  construction  in  metal. 

THE  SECOND  EMPIRE.  The  reign  of  Napoleon  III.  (1X52-70) 
was  a  period  of  exceptional  activity,  especially  in  Paris.  The 
greatest  monument  of  his  reign  was  the  completion  of  the  Louvre 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


and  Tuileries,  under  Visconti  and  Lejuel,  including  the  re- 
modelling of  the  pavilions  de  Flore  and  de  Marsan.  The  new 
portions  constitute  the  most  notable  example  of  modern  French 

architecture,  and  the  manner 
in  which  the  two  palaces  were 
united  deserves  high  praise. 
In  spite  of  certain  defects, 
this  work  is  marked  by  a 
combination  of  dignity,  rich- 
ness, and  refinement  such  as 
is  rarely  found  in  palace 
architecture  (Figs.  213,  214). 
The  New  Opera  (1863-75), 
by  Gamier  (d.  1898),  stands 
next  to  the  Louvre  in  im- 
portance as  a  national  monu- 
ment. It  is  by  far  the  most 
sumptuous  building  for 
amusement  in  existence,  but 
in  purity  of  detail  and  in  the 
balance  and  restraint  of  its 
design  it  is  inferior  to  the 
work  of  Visconti  and  Lefuel 
(Fig.  215).  To  this  reign 
belong  the  Palais  de  1'Indus- 
trie,  by  Vicl,  built  for  the  ex- 
hibitionof  1855, but  demolished  for  that  of  1900,  and  several  great 
railway  stations  (dare  du  Nord,  by  Hittorff,  Gare  de  1'Fst,  Gare 
d'Orleans,  etc.),  in  which  the  modern  French  version  of  the 
Renaissance  was  applied  with  considerable  skill  to  buildings 
largely  constructed  of  iron  and  glass.  Town  halls  and  theatres 
were  erected  in  great  numbers,  and  in  decorative  works  like 
fountains  and  monuments  the  French  were  particularly  success- 
ful. The  fountains  of  St.  Michel,  Cuvier  and  Moliere,  at 


FIG.    214. PAVILION*    OP    RICHELIEU, 

LOUVRR. 


RECENT   ARCHITECTURE    IN    EUROPE. 


381 


Paris,  and  of  Longohamps,  at  Marseilles  (Fig.  216),  illustrate 
the  fertility  of  resource  and  elegance  of  detailed  treatment  of  the 
French  in  this  department.  Mention  should  also  here  be  made 
of  the  extensive  enterprises  carried  out  by  or  under  Napoleon  III., 
in  rectifying  and  embellishing  the  street-plans  of  Paris  and  other 
cities  by  new  avenues  and  squares  on  a  vast  scale,  adding  greatly 
to  the  monumental 
splendor  of  these  cities. 
THE  REPUBLIC. 
Since  the  disasters  of 
1870  a  number  of  im- 
portant structures  have 
been  erected,  and 
French  architecture  has 
shown  a  remarkable 
vitality  and  flexibility 
under  new  conditions. 
Its  productions  have  in 
general  until  recent 
years  been  marked  by 
a  refined  taste  and  a 
conspicuous  absence  of 
eccentricity  and  excess; 
but  it  has  for  the  most 
part  trodden  in  well- 
worn  paths.  Among 
notable  recent  monu- 
ments are,  in  church 
architecture,  the  Sacre"- 
Coeur,  at  Montmurtre, 

by  Alxidic,  a  votive  church  inspired  from  the  Franco-Byzantine 
style  of  Aquitania;  in  civil  architecture  the  new  Hotel  de  Ville, 
at  Paris,  by  Kallu  and  Dcpcrthcs,  recalling  the  original  structure 
destroyed  by  the  Commune,  but  in  reality  an  original  creation 


382 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


of  great  merit;  in  scholastic  architecture  the  new  Ecole  de  Mede- 
cine,  and  the  new  Sorbonne,  by  Sacconi;  and  in  other  branches 
of  the  art  the  metal-and-glass  exhibition  buildings  of  1878,  1889, 
and  1900.  In  the  last  of  these  the  striving  for  originality  and 
the  effort  to  discard  traditional  forms  reached  the  extreme,  al- 
though accompanied  by  much  very  clever  detail  and  a  masterly 


KIG.    2l6. FOUNTAIN    OF    LONGCHAMPS,    MARSF.ILLES. 

use  of  color-decoration.  To  these  should  be  added  many  note- 
worthy theatres,  town-halls,  court-houses,  and  prcjectures  in  pro- 
vincial cities,  and  commemorative  columns  and  monuments 
almost  without  number.  In  street  architecture  there  is  now 
much  more  variety  and  originality  than  formerly,  especially  in 
private  houses,  and  the  reaction  against  the  orders  and  against 
traditional  methods  of  design  has  of  late  been  growing  stronger. 
The  chief  excellence  of  modern  French  architecture  lies  in  its 


RECENT   ARCHITECTURE   IN    EUROPE. 


383 


rational  planning,  monumental  spirit,  and  refinement  of  detail 
(Fig.  217),  and  in  the  intimate  association  of  decorative  sculp- 
ture and  painting  with  structural  design. 

GERMANY  AND  AUSTRIA.  German  architecture  has  been 
more  affected  during  the  past  fifty  years  by  the  archaeological 
spirit  than  has  the  French.  A  pronounced  mediaeval  revival 
partly  accompanied,  partly  followed  the  Greek  revival  in  Ger- 
many, and  produced  a  number  of  churches  and  a  few  secular 
buildings  in  the  basilican,  Romanesque,  and  Gothic  styles.  These 
are  less  interesting 
than  those  in  the  Greek 
style,  because  mediaeval 
forms  are  even  more 
foreign  to  modern  needs 
than  the  classic,  being 
specially  appropriate 
only  to  systems  of  de- 
sign and  construction 
which  are  no  longer 
practicable.  At  Mu- 
nich the  Auekirche,  by 
Ohlmiiller,  in  an  attenuated  Gothic  style;  the  Byzantine  Lud- 
wigskirche,  and  Ziebland's  Basilica  following  Early  Christian 
models;  the  Basilica  by  Hubsch,  at  Butach,  and  the  Votive 
Church  at  Vienna  (1856)  by  H.  von  Ferstel  (1828-1883)  are 
notable  nee-medieval  monuments.  The  last-named  church  may 
be  classed  with  Ste.  Clothilde  at  Paris  (see  p.  379),  and  St.  Pat- 
rick's Cathedral  at  New  York,  all  three  being  of  approximately 
the  same  size  and  general  style,  recalling  St.  Ouen  at  Rouen. 
They  are  correct  and  elaborate,  but  more  or  less  cold  and  artificial. 

More  successful  are  many  of  the  German  theatres  and  concert 
halls,  in  which  Renaissance  and  classic  forms  have  been  freely 
used.  In  several  of  these  the  attempt  has  been  made  to  express 
by  the  external  form  the  curvilinear  plan  of  the  auditorium,  as  in 


FIG.    217. MUSf.E    GALLlgRA,    PARIS. 


384  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

the  Dresden  Theatre,  by  Semper  (1841;  Fig.  218),  the  theatre 
at  Carlsruhe,by  Hiibsch,and  the  double  winter-summer  Victoria 
Theatre,  at  Berlin,  by  Titz.  But  the  practical  and  aesthetic 
difficulties  involved  in  this  treatment  have  caused  its  general 
abandonment.  The  Opera  House  at  Vienna,  by  Siccardsburg 


FIG.    2  I  8. THEATRE   AT   DRESDEN. 

and  Von  der  Niill  (1861-69),  ^s  rectangular  in  its  masses,  and  but 
for  a  certain  triviality  of  detail  would  rank  among  the  most  suc- 
cessful buildings  of  its  kind.  The  new  Burgtheater  in  the  same 
city  is  a  more  elaborately  ornate  structure  in  Renaissance  style, 
somewhat  ilorid  and  overdone. 

Modern  German  architecture  is  at  its  best  in  academic  and 
residential  buildings.  The  Industrial  Museum,  at  Berlin,  by 
Schinkel,  in  which  brick  is  used  in  a  rational  and  dignified  design 
without  the  orders;  the  Polytechnic  School,  at  Zurich,  by  Sem- 
per; university  buildings,  and  especially  buildings  for  technical 
instruction,  at  ('arlsruhe,  Stuttgart,  Strasburg,  Dresden,  Leipzig, 
Vienna,  and  other  cities,  show  a  monumental  treatment  of  the 
exterior  and  of  the  general  distribution,  combined  with  a  care- 
ful study  of  practical  requirements.  In  administrative  build- 


RECENT   ARCHITECTURE   IN    EUROPE.  385 

ings  the  Germans  have  hardly  been  as  successful;  and  the  new 
Parliament  House,  at  Berlin,  by  P.  \\'allot,\r\  spite  of  its  splendor 
and  costliness,  is  heavy  and  unsatisfactory  in  detail.  The  larger 
cities,  especially  Berlin,  contain  many  excellent  examples  of 
house  architecture,  mostly  in  the  Renaissance  style,  sufficiently 
monumental  in  design,  though  usually,  like  most  German  work, 
inclined  to  heaviness  of  detail.  The  too  free  use  of  stucco  in 
imitation  of  stone  is  also  open  to  criticism. 

VIENNA.     During  the  last  forty  years  Vienna  has  undergone 
a  transformation  which  has  made  it  the  rival  of  Paris  as  a  stately 


VIC,.    2IQ.— BLOCK    OP    DWELLINGS    {M  AH  IK-THKKKSIKNHOP),    VIENNA. 

capital.  The  remodelling  of  the  central  portion,  the  creation  of  a 
series  of  magnificent  boulevards  and  squares,  and  the  grouping 
of  the  chief  state  and  municipal  buildings  about  these  upon  a 
monumental  scheme  of  arrangement,  have  given  the  city  an  un- 
usual aspect  of  splendor.  Among  t'1  •  mo-4  important  ivonu- 


386  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

ments  in  this  group  are  the  Parliament  House,  by  Hansen  (see 
p.  369),  and  the  Town  Hall,  by  F.  Schmidt.  This  latter  is  a  Neo- 
Gothic  edifice  of  great  size  and  pretentiousness,  but  strangely 
thin  and  meagre  in  detail,  and  quite  out  of  harmony  with  its  sur- 
roundings. The  university  and  museums  are  massive  piles 
in  Renaissance  style;  and  it  is  the  Renaissance  rather  than  the 
classic  or  Gothic  revival  which  prevails  throughout  the  new  city. 
The  great  blocks  of  residences  and  apartments  (Fig.  219),  which 
line  its  streets  are  highly  ornate  in  their  architecture,  but  for  the 
most  part  done  in  stucco,  which  fails  after  all  to  give  the  aspect 
of  solidity  and  durability  which  it  seeks  to  counterfeit. 

The  city  of  Buda-Pesth  has  also  in  recent  years  undergone 
a  phenomenal  transformation  of  a  similar  nature  to  that  effected 
in  Vienna,  but  it  possesses  fewer  monuments  of  conspicuous 
architectural  interest.  The  Synagogue  is  a  rich  and  pleasing 
edifice  of  brick  in  a  modified  Hispano-Moresque  style.  The 
most  notable  monument  of  the  city,  and  one  of  the  most  imposing 
of  modern  legislative  buildings  in  Europe,  is  the  neo-Gothic 
Parliament  House  by  Stelndl,  which,  by  its  more  massive 
design,  offers  a  somewhat  striking  contrast  to  the  Vienna  Town 
Hall  mentioned  above. 

GREAT  BRITAIN.  While  the  Anglo-Greek  style  was  still 
in  process  of  development,  a  coterie  of  enthusiastic  students  of 
Biitish  mediaeval  monuments — archaeologists  rather  than  archi- 
tects— initiated  a  movement  for  the  revival  of  the  national  Gothic 
architecture.*  The  first  fruits  of  this  movement,  led  by  the  two 
Pugins,  Brandon,  Rickman,  and  others  (about  1830-40)  were  seen 
in  countless  pseudo-Gothic  structures  in  which  the  pointed  arches, 
buttresses,  and  clustered  shafts  of  mediaeval  architecture  were 

*  There  had,  indeed,  been  an  earlier  effort  to  revive  the  Gothic 
style  in  the  famous  Strawberry  Hill  mansion  of  Walpole  in  the 
later  years  of  tlie  i8th  century,  and  again  in  Beckharn's  unlucky 
experiment  of  "  Fonthill  Abbey";  but  these  were  individual  and 
abortive  efforts. 


RECENT   ARCHITECTURE   IN    EUROPE. 


387 


imitated  or  parodied  according  to  the  designer's  ability,  with 
frequent  misapprehension  of  their  proper  use  or  significance. 
This  unintelligent  misapplication  of  Gothic  forms  was,  however, 
confined  to  the  earlier  stages  of  the  movement.  With  increasing 
light  and  experience  came  a  more  correct  and  consistent  use  of 
the  medkeval  styles,  dominated  by  a  spirit  of  archaeological  cor- 


rectness.  This  spirit,  stimulated  by  extensive  enterprises  in  the 
restoration  of  the  great  medkeval  monuments  of  the  United  King- 
dom, was  fatal  to  any  free  and  original  development  of  the  style 
along  new  lines.  But  it  rescued  church  architecture  from  the 
utter  meanness  and  debasement  into  which  it  had  fallen  and 
established  a  standard  of  taste  which  reacted  on  all  other  branches 
of  design. 

THE   VICTORIAN  GOTHIC.       Hi-twirn     1X50    and     1X70    the 


388 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


striving  after  archaeological  correctness  gave  place  to  the  more 
rational  effort  to  adapt  Gothic  principles  to  modern  requirements, 
instead  of  merely  copying  extinct  styles.  This  effort,  prosecuted 
by  a  number  of  architects  of  great  intelligence,  culture,  and 
earnestness  (Sir  Gilbert  Scott,  George  Edmund  Street,  Alfred 

Waterhouse,  William  B  urges, 
and  others),  resulted  in  a 
number  of  extremely  inter- 
esting buildings.  Chief 
among  these  in  size  and  cost 
stand  the  Parliament 
Houses  at  Westminster,  be- 
gun in  1839  by  Sir  diaries 
Barry  (1789-1850),  in  the 
Perpendicular  style.  This 
immense  structure  (Fig.  220), 
imposing  in  its  simple  masses 
and  refined  in  its  carefully 
studied  detail,  is  the  most 
successful  monument  of  the 
Victorian  Gothic  style.  It 
suffers,  however,  from  a 
somewhat  confused  plan,  and 
from  the  over-minuteness  of 
its  decorative  detail.  It  can- 
not, on  the  whole,  be  claimed 
as  a  successful  vindication 
of  the  claims  of  the  pro- 
moters of  the  style  as  to  the 
adaptability  of  Gothic  forms 
to  structures  planned  and 
built  after  the  modern  fash- 
The  Assize  Courts  at  Manchester  (Fig.  221),  the  New 


FIG.  221. — ASSIZE   COUKTS,    MANCHESTER. 

DETAIL. 


ion. 


Museum  at  Oxford,  the  gorgeous  Albert  Memorial,  at  Lon- 


RECENT   ARCHITECTURE    IN    EUROPE. 


389 


don,  by  Scott,  and  the  New  Law  Courts  at  London,  by  Street, 
are  all  conspicuous  illustrations  of  the  same  truth.  They  are 
conscientious,  carefully  studied  designs  in  good  taste,  and  yet 
generally  unsuited  in 
style  to  their  purpose. 
They  are  like  labored 
and  scholarly  verse  in 
a  foreign  tongue,  cor- 
rect in  form  and  lan- 
guage, but  lacking  the 
naturalness  and  charm 
of  true  and  unfettered 
inspiration.  A  later 
essay  of  the  same  sort 
in  a  slightly  different 
field  is  the  Natural 
History  Museum  at 
South  Kensington,  by 
Waterhoi4se  (1879),  an 
imposing  building  in  a 
modified  Romanesque 
style  (Fig.  222). 

The  church  archi- 
tecture which  has  been 
really  the  finest  prod- 
uct of  this  movement 
since  1880  is,  by  con- 
trast with  these  secular 
buildings,  worthy  of  high  praise.  It  is  characterized  by  almost 
unfailing  good  taste,  and  by  a  dignity  and  simplicity  of  design  and 
appropriateness  of  detail  which  can  hardly  be  matched  elsewhere 
in  modern  ecclesiastical  work.  The  examples  are  too  numerous 
to  be  individualized  by  special  mention  in  so  brief  a  notice. 

OTHER  WORKS.     The  Victorian    (iothic   style  responded  to 


Pic;.   222. NATURAL    HISTORY    Ml'SKUM,    LONDON". 


390  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

no  deep  and  general  movement  of  the  popular  taste,  and,  like  the 
Anglo-Greek  style,  was  doomed  to  failure  from  the  inherent  in- 
congruity between  modern  needs  and  mediaeval  forms.  Within 
the  last  twenty  years  there  has  been  a  quite  general  return  to 
Renaissance  principles,  and  the  result  is  seen  in  a  large  number 
of  town-halls,  exchanges,  museums,  and  colleges,  in  which  Ren- 
aissance forms,  with  and  without  the  orders,  have  been  treated 
with  increasing  freedom  and  skilful  adaptation  to  the  materials 
and  special  requirements  of  each  case.  The  Albert  Memorial 
Hall  (1863,  by  General  Scott)  may  be  taken  as  an  early  instance 
of  this  movement,  and  the  Imperial  Institute  (Colonial  offices), 
by  Collcutt,  the  Oxford  Town  Hall  and  the  new  S.  Kensington 
Museum  by  Sir  Aston  Webb,  as  among  later  examples.  In  do- 
mestic architecture  the  so-called  Queen  Anne  style  as  practised  by 
Norman  Shaw,  Ernest  George,  and  others,  was  for  a  while  in 
vogue,  based  on  the  brick  architecture  of  Queen  Anne's  time,  but 
freely  and  often  artistically  altered  to  meet  modern  tastes  and 
needs.  Many  large  mansions,  as  well  as  many  schools  and  col- 
leges, have  been  erected  in  a  free  version  of  the  Tudor  Gothic 
with  distinct  success.  But  it  is  in  the  smaller  houses  of  villages 
and  city  suburbs  that  the  English  architects  have  in  recent  years 
shown  the  most  distinctive  talent,  and  nowhere,  unless  occasion- 
ally in  the  United  States,  are  there  to  be  seen  such  charming 
examples  of  simple,  appropriate,  unostentatious  design  as  in  these 
modest  English  houses  of  brick,  timber  and  tile. 

In  its  emancipation  from  the  mistaken  principles  of  archa'olo- 
gical  revivals,  and  in  its  evidences  of  improved  taste  and  awakened 
originality,  contemporary  British  architecture  shows  promise  of 
good  things  to  come.  It  is  still  inferior  to  the  French  in  the  monu- 
mental quality,  in  technical  resource  and  refinement  of  decora- 
tive detail,  but  superior  to  it  in  picturesqueness  and  variety, 
especially  of  external  mass  and  effect. 

ELSEWHERE  IN  EUROPE.  In  other  European  countries 
recent  architecture  shows  in  general  increasing  freedom  and 


RECENT   ARCHITECTURE   IN   EUROPE.  39! 

improved  taste,  but  both  its  opportunities  and  its  performance 
have  been  nowhere  else  as  conspicuous  as  in  France,  Germany, 
and  England.  The  costly  Bourse  and  the  vast  but  overloaded 
Palais  de  Justice  at  Brussels,  by  Polaerl,  are  neither  of  them  con- 
spicuous for  refined  and  cultivated  taste.  A  few  buildings  of  note 
in  Switzerland,  Russia,  and  Greece  might  find  mention  in  a  more 
extended  review  of  architecture,  but  cannot  here  even  be  enumer- 
ated. In  Italy,  especially  at  Rome,  Milan,  Naples,  and  Turin, 
there  has  been  a  great  activity  in  building  since  1870,  but  with 
the  exception  of  the  Monument  to  Victor  Emmanuel  and  the 
National  Museum  at  Rome,  monumental  arcades  and  passages 
at  Milan  and  Naples,  and  Cam  pi  Santi  or  monumental  cemeteries 
at  Bologna,  Genoa,  and  one  or  two  other  places,  there  has  been 
comparatively  little  of  real  importance  built  in  Italy  of  late  years. 
L'ART  NOUVEAU. — Since  1896,  and  particularly  since  the 
Paris  Exposition  of  1900,  a  movement  has  manifested  itself  in 
France  and  Belgium,  and  spread  to  Germany  and  Austria  and 
even  measurably  to  England,  looking  toward  a  more  personal 
and  original  style  of  decorative  and  architectural  design,  in  which 
the  traditions  and  historic  styles  of  the  past  shall  be  ignored. 
This  movement  has  received  from  its  adherents  and  the  public 
the  name  of  "L'Art  Nouveau,"  or,  according  to  some,  "L'Art 
Moderne";  but,  except  in  the  minor  arts,  it  can  hardly  be 
held  to  have  created  a  really  new  style  or  to  express  any 
really  new  principle  in  art.  It  is  mainly  a  reaction  against  a  too 
slavish  adherence  to  traditional  forms  and  methods  of  design  (see 
pp.  364,  390),  a  striving  to  ignore  or  forget  the  past  rather  than  a 
reaching  out  after  any  well-understood,  positive  end;  as  such,  it 
possesses  the  negative  strength  of  protest  rather  than  the  affirma- 
tive strength  of  a  vital  principle.  Its  lack  of  cohesion  is  seen  in 
the  division  of  its  adherents  into  groups,  some  looking  to  nature 
for  inspiration,  while  others  decry  this  as  a  mistaken  quest;  some 
seeking  to  emphasize  structural  lines,  and  others  to  ignore  them 
altogether.  All,  however,  are  united  in  the  avoidance  of  common- 


392  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

place  forms  and  historic  styles,  and  this  preoccupation  has  de- 
veloped an  amazing  amount  of  originality  and  individualism  of 
style,  frequently  reaching  the  extreme  of  eccentricity.  The  re- 
sults have  therefore  been,  as  might  be  expected,  extremely  varied 
in  merit,  ranging  from  the  most  refined  and  reserved  in  style  to 
the  most  harshly  bizarre  and  extravagant.  As  a  rule,  they  have 
been  most  successful  in  small  objects — jewelry,  silverware,  vases 
and  small  furniture;  and  one  most  desirable  feature  of  the  move- 
ment has  been  the  stimulus  it  has  given  (especially  in  France  and 
England),  to  the  organization  and  activity  of  " arts-and-crafts" 
societies,  which  occupy  themselves  with  the  encouragement  of  the 
decorative  and  industrial  arts  and  the  diffusion  of  an  improved 
taste.  In  the  field  of  the  larger  objects  of  design,  in  which  the 
dominance  of  traditional  form  and  of  structural  considerations  is 
proportionally  more  imperious,  the  struggle  to  evade  these  re- 
strictions becomes  more  difficult  and  results  usually  in  more 
obvious  and  disagreeable  eccentricities,  which  the  greater  size  and 
permanence  of  the  object  tend  further  to  exaggerate.  The  least 
successful  achievements  of  the  movement  have  accordingly  been 
in  architecture.  The  buildings  designed  by  its  most  fervent 
disciples  (e.g.  the  Pavilion  Bleu  at  the  Exposition  of  1900,  the 
Castel  Beranger,  Paris,  by  //.  Guimard,  the  houses  of  the  artist 
colony  at  Darmstadt  by  /.  M.  Olbricli,  and  others)  are  for  the 
most  part  characterized  by  extreme  stiffness,  eccentricity,  or 
ugliness.  The  requirements  of  construction  and  of  human 
habitation  cannot  easily  be  met  without  sometimes  using  the 
forms  which  past  experience  has  developed  for  the  same  ends; 
and  the  negation  of  precedent,  is  not  the  surest  path  to  beauty  or 
even  reasonableness  of  design.  It  is  interesting  to  notice  that  in 
the  intermediate  field  of  furniture-design  some  of  the  best  French 
productions  recall  the  style  of  Louis  XV.,  modified  by  Japanese 
ideas  and  spirit.  This  singular  but  not  unpleasing  combination 
5s  less  surprising  when  we  reflect  that  the  style  of  Louis  XV.  was 
itself  a  protest  against  the  formalism  of  the  heavy  classic  architec- 


RECENT   ARCHITECTURE   IN   EUROPE.  393 

ture  of  preceding  reigns,  and  achieved  its  highest  successes  in  the 
domain  of  furniture  and  interior  decoration. 

It  may  be  fair  to  credit  the  new  movement  with  one  positive 
characteristic  in  its  prevalent  regard  for  line,  especially  for  the 
effect  of  long  and  swaying  lines,  whether  in  the  contours  or  orna- 
mentation of  an  object.  This  is  especially  noticeable  in  the 
Belgian  work,  and  in  that  of  the  Viennese  "  Secessionists,"  who 
have,  however,  carried  eccentricity  to  a  further  point  of  extrava- 
gance than  any  others. 

The  search  for  novelty  and  the  desire  to  dispense  wholly  with 
historic  forms  of  design  which  are  the  chief  marks  of  the  Art 
Nouveau,  were  emphatically  displayed  in  many  of  the  remark- 
able buildings  of  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1900,  in  which  a 
striking  fertility  and  facility  of  design  in  the  decorative  details 
made  more  conspicuous  the  failure  to  improve  upon  the  estab- 
lished precedents  of  architectural  style  in  the  matters  of  propor- 
tion, scale,  general  composition,  and  contour.  As  usual  the 
metallic  construction  of  these  buildings  was  almost  without 
exception  admirable,  and  the  decorative  details,  taken  by  them- 
selves, extremely  clever  and  often  beautiful,  but  the  combined 
result  was  not  wholly  satisfactory. 

On  the  whole,  although  hardly  constituting  in  itself  a  definite 
style,  the  movement  seems  likely  to  exert  on  European  architec- 
ture an  influence,  direct  and  indirect,  not  unlike  that  of  the  Neo- 
Grec  movement  of  1830  in  France  (p.  372),  but  even  more  lasting 
and  beneficial.  It  has  already  begun  to  break  the  hold  of  rigid 
classical  tradition  in  design;  and  recent  buildings,  especially 
in  Germany  and  Austria,  like  the  works  of  the  brilliant  Otto 
Wagner  in  Vienna,  show  a  pleasing  freedom  of  personal  touch 
without  undue  striving  after  eccentric  novelty.  Doubtless  in 
French  and  other  European  architecture  the  same  result  will  in 
time  manifest  itself. 

In  the  United  States  the  movement  has  not  found  a  firm  foot- 
hold because  there  has  been  no  dominant,  enslaving  tradition  to 


394  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

protest  against.  The  fundamental  spirit  of  the  movement  may 
be  recognized  in  the  work  of  individual  architects  and  decorative 
artists  in  the  United  States,  executed  years  before  the  movement 
took  recognizable  form  in  Europe;  and  American  decorative 
design  has  generally  been,  at  least  since  1880  or  1885,  sufficiently 
free,  individual  and  personal,  to  render  unnecessary  and  impossi- 
ble any  concerted  movement  of  artistic  revolt  against  slavery  to 
precedent. 


CHAPTER   XXVII. 

ARCHITECTURE   IN    THE   UNITED    STATES. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED:  As  before,  Fergusson,  Statham.  Also, 
Baker,  American  Country  Homes  and  their  Gardens.  Chandler, 
The  Colonial  Architecture  of  Maryland,  Pennsylvania,  and  Vir- 
ginia. Cleaveland  and  Campbell,  American  Landmarks.  Cor- 
ner and  Soderholz,  Colonial  Architecture  in  New  England. 
Crane  and  Soderholz,  Examples  of  Colonial  Architecture  in 
Charleston  and  Savannah.  Desmond  and  Croly,  Stately  Homes 
in  America.  Dow,  The  American  Renaissance.  Drake,  His- 
toric Fields  and  Mansions  oj  Middlesex.  Everett,  Historic 
Churchcsoj A merica;  ThcGcorgian  (" Colonial ")  Period*  Little, 
Early  Xcu>  England  Interiors.  Monographs  oj  American  Archi- 
tecture.* Munn  &  Co.,  American  Homes  and  Gardens.  Schuy- 
ler,  American  Architecture.  Stevens  and  Cobb,  Examples  0} 
American  Domestic  Architecture.  Van  Rcnsselaer,  //.  //.  Rich- 
ardson and  His  Works.  Wallis,  Old  Colonial  Architecture  and 
Furniture. 

GENERAL  REMARKS.  The  colonial  architecture  of  mod- 
ern times  presents  a  peculiar  phenomenon  The  colonizing 
nation,  carrying  into  its  new  habitat  the  tastes  and  practices  of  a 
long-established  civilization,  modifies  these  only  with  the  utmost 
reluctance,  under  the  absolute  compulsion  of  new  conditions. 
When  the  new  home  is  virgin  soil,  destitute  of  cultivation,  govern- 
ment, or  civilized  inhabitants,  the  accompaniments  and  activities 
of  civilization  introduced  by  the-  colonists  manifest  themselves 
at  first  in  curious  contrast  to  the  primitive  surroundings.  The 
struggle  between  organized  life  and  chaos,  the  laborious  sub- 
*  Published  by  the  American  Architect  ami  Building  News. 


396  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

jugation  of  nature  to  the  requirements  of  our  complex  modern 
life,  for  a  considerable  period  absorb  the  energies  of  the  colonists. 
The  amenities  of  culture,  the  higher  intellectual  life,  the  refine- 
ments of  art  can,  during  this  period,  receive  little  attention. 
Meanwhile  a  new  national  character  is  being  formed;  the  people 
are  undergoing  the  moral  training  upon  which  their  subsequent 
achievements  must  depend.  With  the  conquest  of  brute  nature, 
however,  and  the  gradual  emergence  of  a  more  cultivated  class, 
with  the  growth  of  commerce  and  wealth  and  the  consequent  in- 
crease of  leisure,  the  humanities  find  more  place  in  the  colonial 
life.  The  fine  arts  appear  in  scattered  centres  determined  by 
peculiarly  favorable  conditions.  For  a  long  time  they  retain 
the  impress,  and  seek  to  reproduce  the  forms,  of  the  art  of  the 
mother  country.  But  new  conditions  impose  a  new  development. 
Maturing  commerce  with  other  lands  brings  in  foreign  influences, 
to  which  the  still  unformed  colonial  art  is  peculiarly  susceptible. 
Only  with  political  and  commercial  independence,  fully  devel- 
oped internal  resources,  and  a  high  national  culture  do  the  arts 
finally  attain,  as  it  were,  their  majority,  and  enter  upon  a  truly 
national  growth. 

These  facts  are  abundantly  illustrated  by  the  architectural 
history  of  the  United  States.  The  only  one  among  the  British 
colonies  to  attain  complete  political  independence,  it  is  the  only 
one  among  them  whose  architecture  has  as  yet  entered  upon  an 
independent  course  of  development,  and  this  only  within  a  com- 
paratively recent  period.  Nor  has  even  this  development  pro- 
duced as  yet  a  wholly  independent  national  style.  It  has,  how- 
ever, originated  new  constructive  methods,  new  types  of  build- 
ings, and  a  distinctively  American  treatment  of  the  composition 
and  the  masses  in  many  classes  of  buildings,  the  decorative  de- 
tails being  still,  for  the  most  part, derived  from  historic  precedents. 
The  architecture  of  the  other  British  colonies  has  retained  more 
of  the  provincial  character,  though  producing  from  time  to  time 
individual  works  of  merit.  In  South  America  and  Mexico  the 


ARCHITECTURE   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES.         397 

only  buildings  of  importance  are  Spanish,  French,  or  German 
in  style,  according  to  the  nationality  or  training  of  the  architects 
employed.  The  following  sketch  of  American  architecture  refers, 
therefore,  exclusively  to  its  development  in  the  United  States. 

FORMATIVE  PERIOD.  Buildings  in  stone  were  not  under- 
taken by  the  early  English  colonists.  The  more  important 
structures  in  the  Southern  and  Dutch  colonies  were  of  brick 
imported  from  Europe.  Wood  was,  however,  the  material  most 
commonly  employed,  especially  in  New  England,  and  its  use 
determined  in  large  measure  the  form  and  style  of  the  colonial 
architecture.  There  was  little  or  no  striving  for  architectural 
elegance  until  the  eighteenth  century,  when  Wren's  influence 
asserted  itself  in  a  modest  way  in  the  Middle  and  Southern 
colonies.  The  very  simple  and  unpretentious  town-hall  at 
Williamsburg,  Va.,  and  St.  Michael's,  Charleston,  are  attributed 
to  him;  but  the  most  that  can  be  said  for  these,  as  for  the  brick 
churches  and  manors  of  Virginia  previous  to  1725,  is  that  they  are 
simple  in  design  and  pleasing  in  proportion,  without  special 
architectural  elegance.  The  same  is  true  of  the  wooden  houses 
and  churches  of  New  England  of  the  period,  except  that  they 
are  even  simpler  in  design. 

From  1725  to  1775  increased  population  and  wealth  along 
the  coast  brought  about  a  great  advance  in  architecture,  especially 
in  churches  and  in  the  dwellings  of  the  wealthy.  During  this 
period,  sometimes  called  the  Georgian,  was  developed  the  Colo- 
nial style,  based  on  that  of  the  reigns  of  Anne  and  the  first  two 
Georges  in  England,  and  in  church  architecture  on  the  models 
set  by  Wren  and  Gibbs.  All  the  details  were,  however,  freely 
modified  by  the  general  employment  of  wood.  The  scarcity  of 
architects  trained  in  Old  World  traditions  contributed  to  this 
departure  from  classic  precision  of  form.  The  style,  especially 
in  interior  design,  reflected  the  cultured  taste  of  the  colonial 
aristocracy  in  its  refined  treatment  of  the  woodwork,  much  of 
which  appears  to  have  been  imported  from  England.  But  there 


398 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


was  little  or  no  architecture  of  a  truly  monumental  character. 
Edifices  of  stone  were  singularly  few,  and  administrative  build- 
ings were  small  and  modest,  owing  to  insufficient  grants  from  the 
Crown,  as  well  as  to  the  poverty  of  the  colonies. 

The  churches  of  this  period  include  a  number  of  interesting 

designs,  especially  pleas- 
.  ,      ing  in  the  forms  of  their 

^  steeples.      The    "Old 

South  "  at  Boston  (now 
a  museum),  Trinity  at 
Newport,  and  St.  Paul's 
at  New  York — one  of  the 
few  built  of  stone  (1764) 
— are  good  examples  of 
the  style.  Christ  Church 
at  Philadelphia  (1727-35, 
by  Dr.  Kearsley)  is  an- 
other example,  histori- 
cally as  well  as  architec- 
turally interesting  (Fig. 
223);  and  there  are 
scores  of  other  churches 
FIG.  22,3. — CHKIST  CHURCH,  PHILADELPHIA.  almost  e cj u a  1 1  y  note- 

worthy,        scattered 

through  New  England,  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  the  Middle 
States. 

DWELLINGS.  These  reflect  better  than  the  churches  the 
varying  tastes  of  the  different  colonies.  Maryland  and  Virginia 
abound  in  fine  brick  manor-houses,  set  amid  extensive  grounds 
walled  in  and  entered  through  iron  gates  of  artistic  design.  The 
interior  finish  of  these  houses  was  often  elaborate  in  conception 
and  admirably  executed.  Westover  (1737),  Carter's  Grove 
(1737)  in  Virginia,  and  the  Hanvood  and  Hammond  Houses  at 
Annapolis,  Md.  (1770),  are  examples.  The  majority  of  the  New 


ARCHITECTURE   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 


399 


England  houses  were  of  wood,  more  compact  in  plan,  more  varied 
and  picturesque  in  design  than  those  of  the  South,  but  wanting 
somewhat  of  their  stateliness.  The  interior  finish  of  wainscot, 
cornices,  stairs,  and  mantelpieces  shows,  however,  the  same 
general  style,  in  a  skilful  and  artistic  adaptation  of  classic  forms 
to  the  slender  proportions  of  wood  construction.  Externally  the 


FIG.  224. — CRAIOIE  (LONGFELLOW)  HOUSE,  CAMBRIDGE. 

orders  appear  in  porches  and  in  colossal  pilasters,  with  well 
designed  entablatures,  and  windows  of  Italian  model.  The  in- 
fluence of  the  Adam  and  Sheraton  furniture  is  doubtless  to  be 
seen  in  these  quaint  and  often  charming  versions  of  classic  mo- 
tives. The  Hancock  House,  Boston  (of  stone,  demolished);  the 
Sherburnc  (or  Warner)  House,  Portsmouth  (1714);  Craigie  House, 
Cambridge  (1757, Tig.  224);  and  Rumford  House, North  Woburn 
(Mass.),  arc  typical  examples.  The-  roofs  were-  generally  either 
gambrelled  or  hipped;  in  the  latter  case  the  central  portion  was 
nearly  flat  and  was  balustraded.  Many  of  I  he  doorways  show 
notable  elegance  and  refinement  of  design. 


40O  HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

In  the  Middle  States  architectural  activity  was  chiefly  centred 
in  Philadelphia  and  New  York,  and  one  or  two  other  towns, 
where  a  number  of  manor-houses,  still  extant,  attest  the  wealth 
and  taste  of  the  time.  It  is  noticeable  that  the  veranda  or  piazza 
was  confined  to  the  Southern  States,  but  that  the  climate  seems 
to  have  had  little  influence  on  the  forms  of  roofs,  except  that  the 
gambrel  roof  is  seldom  seen  south  of  Pennsylvania. 

PUBLIC  BUILDINGS.  Of  public  and  monumental  architec- 
ture this  period  has  little  to  show.  Large  cities  did  not  exist; 
New  York,  Boston,  and  Philadelphia  were  hardly  more  than 
overgrown  villages.  The  public  buildings — court-houses  and 
town-halls — were  modest  and  inexpensive  structures.  The  Old 
State  House  and  Faneuil  Hall  at  Boston,  the  Town  Hall  at  New- 
port, (R.  I.),  and  Independence  Hall  at  Philadelphia,  the  best 
known  of  those  now  extant,  are  not  striking  architecturally. 
Monumental  design  was  beyond  the  opportunities  and  means  of 
the  colonies.  It  was  in  their  churches,  all  of  moderate  size,  and 
in  their  dwellings  that  the  colonial  builders  achieved  their  great- 
est successes;  and  these  works  are  quaint,  charming,  and  re- 
fined, rather  than  impressive  or  imposing. 

To  the  latter  part  of  the  colonial  period  belong  a  number  of 
interesting  buildings  which  remain  as  monuments  of  Spanish 
rule  in  California,  Florida,  and  the  Southwest.  The  old  Fort  San 
Marco,  now  Fort  Marion  (1656-1756),  and  the  Catholic  cathe- 
dral (1793;  after  the  fire  of  1887  rebuilt  in  its  original  form  with 
the  original  facade  uninjured),  both  at  St.  Augustine,  Fla.; 
the  picturesque  buildings  of  the  California  missions  (mainly 
1769-1800),  the  majority  of  them  now  in  ruins;  scattered  Spanish 
churches  in  California,  Arizona,  and  New  Mexico,  and  a  few 
unimportant  secular  buildings,  display  among  their  modern  and 
.American  settings  a  picturesque  and  interesting  Spanish  aspect 
and  character,  though  from  the  point  of  view  of  architectural  de- 
tail they  represent  merely  a  chastened  phase  of  the  Churriguer- 
esque  style. 


ARCHITECTURE    IN    THE    UNITED   STATES.         401 

EARLY  REPUBLICAN  PERIOD.  Between  the  Revolution 
and  the  War  of  1812,  under  the  new  conditions  of  independence 
and  self-government,  architecture  took  on  a  more  monumental 
character.  Buildings  for  the  State  and  National  administra- 
tions were  erected  with  the  rapidly  increasing  resources  of  the 
country.  Stone  was  more  generally  used;  colonnades,  domes, 
and  cupolas  or  bell-towers,  were  adopted  as  indispensable  fea- 
tures of  civic  architecture.  In  church  building  the  Wren-Gibbs 


FIG.  22S-— NATIONAL  CAPITOL,  WASHINGTON. 

type  continued  to  prevail,  But  with  greater  correctness  of  classic 
forms.  A  number  of  excellent  examples  of  these  churches,  the 
work  of  the  Connecticut  architect  Itltiel  Toume,  are  to  be  seen  in 
Hartford  and  New  Haven,  and  other  towns  in  the  Connecticut 
valley.  The  gambrel  roof  tended  to  disappear  from  the  houses 
of  this  period,  and  there  was  some  decline  in  the  refinement  and 
delicacy  of  the  details  of  architecture.  The  influence  of  the  Louis 
XVI.  style  is  traceable  in  many  cases,  as  in  the  New  York  City 
Hall  (1803-12,  by  McComb  and  Mangiri),  one  of  the  very  best 
designs  of  the  time,  and  in  the  delicate  stucco-work  and  interior 
finish  of  many  houses.  The  original  Capitol  at  Washington — 


4O2 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


the  central  portion  of  the  present  edifice — by  Thornton,  Hallet, 
and  B.  H.  Latrobe  (1793-1830;  Fig.  225),  the  State  House  at 
Boston  (1795,  by  Bui  finch},  and  the  University  of  Virginia,  at 
Charlottesville,  by  Thomas  Jefferson  (1817 ;  somewhat  remodelled 
since  a  fire  in  1895),  are  the  most  interesting  examples  of  the  clas- 
sic tendencies  of  this  period. 

THE  CLASSIC  REVIVAL.  The  influence  of  the  classic  re- 
vivals of  Europe  began 
to  appear  before  the 
close  of  this  period, 
and  reached  its  cul- 
mination about  1830- 
40.  It  left  its  impress 
most  strongly  on  our 
Federal  architecture 
and  the  governmental 
buildings  of  the  States 
and  cities,  although  it 
also  invaded  domestic 
architecture,  produc- 
ing countless  imita- 
tions, in  brick  and 
wooden  houses,  of 
Grecian  colonnades 
and  porticos.  One  of 
its  first-fruits  was  the  White  House,  or  Executive  Mansion,  at 
Washington,  by  Iloban  (1792),  recalling  the  large  English  coun- 
try houses  of  the  time.  The  Greek  Revival,  a  reflection  of  the 
movement  in  England,  began  to  displace  the  Roman  types  as 
early  as  about  1820,  and  thereafter  continued  for  nearly  30  years 
to  dominate  the  public  architecture  of  the  country.  The  Treas- 
ury and  Patent  Office  buildings  at  Washington,  the  Phila- 

*  Remodelled  for  the  National  City  Bank  in  1008  by  the  addition 
of  two  stories  in  a  superposed  Corinthian  order. 


FIG.    226. THE    OLD    CUSTOM    HOUSE,    NKW    YORK.' 


ARCHITECTURE   IN   THE    UNITED   STATES.         403 

delphia  Mint,  the  Sub-treasury  and  Old  Custom  House  at 
New  York  (the  latter  erected  originally  for  the  Merchants'  Ex- 
change in  1841  by  7.  Rogers;  Fig.  226),  and  the  Boston  Custom 
House  are  among  the  important  Federal  buildings  of  this  period. 
Several  State  capitols  were  also  erected  under  the  same  influence; 
and  the  Marine  Fxchange  and  Girard  College  at  Philadelphia 
should  also  be  mentioned  as  conspicuous  examples  of  the  pseudo- 
Greek  style.  The  last  named  building  is  in  form  a  Corinthian 
Greco-Roman  temple,  although  too  palpably  an  imitation  im- 
perfectly adapted  to  its  modern  functions,  to  be  claimed  as  wholly 
successful.  These  classic  buildings  were  solidly  and  carefully 
constructed,  but  lacked  the  freedom  and  appropriateness  of 
earlier  buildings  and  the  sculpture  demanded  by  their  classic 
design.  The  Capitol  at  Washington  was  during  this  period 
greatly  enlarged  by  terminal  wings  with  fine  Corinthian  porticos, 
of  Roman  rather  than  Greek  design.  The  Dome,  by  ll'altcr, 
was  not  added  until  1858-73;  it  is  a  successful  and  harmonious 
composition,  nobly  completing  the  building.  Unfortunately, 
it  is  an  afterthought,  built  of  iron  painted  to  simulate  marble,  the 
substructure  being  inadequate  to  support  a  dome  of  masonry. 
The  Italian  or  Roman  style  which  it  exemplified,  in  time  super- 
seded the  less  tractable  Greek  style. 

It  is  however  worthy  of  remark  that  the  Greek  Revival  pro- 
duced on  the  whole  more  satisfactory  results  in  the  United  States 
than  cither  in  England  or  Germany.  The  churches,  town-halls, 
State  capitols  and  custom  houses  erected  during  this  period  arc 
marked  by  excellent  proportions  and  quiet  and  refined  detail; 
the  windows  are  treated  with  frankness  and  yet  with  true  apprecia- 
tion of  the  spirit  of  Greek  architecture;  and  even  in  the  wooden 
houses  the  mouldings  are  well  profiled  and  the  details  designed 
with  excellent  taste. 

THE  WAR  PERIOD.  The  period  from  1850  to  1876  was  one 
of  intense  jxilitical  activity  and  rapid  industrial  progress.  The 
former  culminated  in  the  terrible  upheaval  of  the  civil  war;  the 


404  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

latter  in  the  completion  of  the  Pacific  Railroad  (1869)  and  a  re- 
markable development  of  the  mining  resources  and  manufactures 
of  the  country.  It  was  a  period  of  feverish  commercial  activity, 
but  of  artistic  stagnation,  and  witnessed  the  erection  of  but  few 
buildings  of  architectural  importance.  A  number  of  State  capitols, 
city  halls  and  churches,  of  considerable  size  and  cost  but  of  in- 
ferior design,  attest  the  decline  of  public  taste  and  architectural 
skill  during  these  years.  The  huge  Municipal  Building  at 
Philadelphia  and  the  Capitol  at  Albany  are  full  of  errors  of  plan- 
ning and  detail  which  twenty-five  years  of  elaboration  have  failed 
to  correct.  Next  to  the  dome  of  the  Capitol  at  Washington,  com- 
pleted during  this  period,  of  which  it  is  the  most  signal  architect- 
ural achievement,  its  most  notable  monument  was  the  St.  Pat- 
rick's Cathedral  at  New  York,  by  Renwick;  a  Gothic  church 
which,  if  somewhat  cold  and  mechanical  in  detail,  is  a  stately 
and  well-considered  design.  Its  west  front  and  spires  (completed 
1886)  are  particularly  successful.  Trinity  Church  (1843,  by  R. 
Upjohn)  and  Grace  Church  (1840,  by  Renwick),  though  of  earlier 
date,  should  be  classed  with  this  cathedral  as  worthy  examples  of 
modern  Gothic  design.  Indeed,  the  churches  designed  in  this 
style  by  a  few  thoroughly  trained  architects  during  this  period  are 
the  most  creditable  and  worthy  among  its  lesser  productions. 
In  general  an  undiscriminating  eclecticism  of  style  prevailed, 
unregulated  by  sober  taste  or  technical  training.  The  Federal 
buildings  by  Mullett  were  monuments  of  uninspired  and  mechan- 
ical design  based  on  French  Renaissance  motives.  The  New 
York  and  Boston  Post  Offices  and  the  State,  Army  and  Navy 
Department  building  at  Washington  are  examples  of  this  style. 
THE  ARTISTIC  AWAKENING.  Between  1870  and  1880  a 
remarkable  series  of  events  exercised  a  powerful  influence  on 
the  artistic  life  of  the  United  States.  Two  terrible  conflagrations, 
in  Chicago  (1871)  and  Boston  (1872),  gave  unexampled  opportu- 
nities for  architectural  improvement  and  greatly  stimulated  the 
public  interest  in  the  art.  The  feverish  and  abnormal  industrial 


ARCHITECTURE    IN   THE    UNITED   STATES.        405 

activity  which  followed  the  war  and  the  rapid  growth  of  the 
parvenu  spirit  were  checked  by  the  disastrous  "panic"  of  1873. 
With  the  completion  of  the  Pacific  railways  and  the  settlement 
of  new  communities  in  the  West,  industrial  prosperity,  when  it 
returned,  was  established  on  a  firmer  basis.  An  extraordinary 
expansion  of  travel  to  Europe  began  to  disseminate  the  seeds 
of  artistic  culture  throughout  the  country.  The  successful 
establishment  of  schools  of  architecture  in  Boston  (1866)  and 
other  cities,  and  the  opening  or  enlargement  of  art  museums  in 
New  York,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Detroit,  Milwaukee, 
and  elsewhere,  stimulated  the  artistic  awakening  which  now 
manifested  itself.  In  architecture  the  personal  influence  of  two 
men,  trained  in  the  Paris  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts,  was  especially 
felt — of  jR.  M.  Hunt  (1827-95)  through  his  words  and  deeds 
quiteTas  much  as  through  his  works;  and  of  H.  H .  Richardson 
(1828-86)  predominantly  through  his  works.  These  two  men, 
with  others  of  less  fame  but  of  high  ideals  and  thorough  culture, 
did  much  to  elevate  architecture  as  an  art  in  the  public  esteem. 
Mention  must  also  be  made  of  the  strong  personal  influence 
of  W .  R.  Ware,  through  the  training,  in  the  two  architectural 
schools  of  which  he  was  the  organizer  in  Boston  and  New 
York,  of  many  gifted  pupils  who  have  since  achieved  high 
reputation  in  the  profession.  To  all  these  influences  new  force 
was  added  by  the  Centennial  Exhibition  at  Philadelphia  (1876). 
Here  for  the  first  time  the  American  people  were  brought  into 
contact,  in  their  own  land,  with  the  products  of  European  and 
Oriental  art.  It  was  to  them  an  artistic  revelation,  whose  results 
were  prompt  and  far-reaching.  Beginning  first  in  the  domain  of 
industrial  and  decorative  art,  its  stimulating  influence  rapidly 
extended  to  painting  and  architecture,  and  with  permanent  con- 
sequences. American  students  began  to  throng  the  centres  of 
Old  World  art,  while  the  setting  of  higher  standards  of  artistic 
excellence  at  home,  and  the  development  of  important  art- 
industries,  were  other  fruits  of  this  artistic  awakening.  The 


406 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


Columbian  Exhibition  at  Chicago  in  1893,  added  a  new  impulse 
to  the  movement,  especially  in  architecture. 

STYLE  IN  RECENT  ARCHITECTURE.  The  rapid  increase 
in  the  number  of 
American  archi- 
tects trained  in 
Paris  or  under  the 
indirect  influence 
of  the  Ecole  des 
Beaux-Arts  has 
been  an  impor- 


FIG.    227. — TRINITY    CHUKCH,    BOSTON. 


tant  factor  in  recent  architectural  progress.  Yet  it  has  by  no 
means  imposed  the  French  academic  formula;  upon  American 
architecture.  The  conditions,  materials,  and  constructive  pro- 
cesses here  prevailing,  and  above  all  the  eclecticism  of  the  public 
taste,  have  prevented  this.  The  French  influence  is  perceived 
rather  in  a  growing  appreciation  of  monumental  design  in  the 
planning,  composition,  and  setting  of  buildings,  than  in  any  direct 
imitation  of  French  models.  The  Gothic  revival  which  prevailed 
more  or  less  widely  from  1840  to  1875,  as  already  noticed,  and  of 
which  the  State  Capitol  at  Hartford  (Conn.),  by  A'.  M.  Upjohn, 


ARCHITECTURE   IN   THE    UNITED   STATES.         407 


and  the  Fine  Arts  Museum  at  Boston,  were  among  the  last  im- 
portant products,  was  generally  confined  to  church  architecture, 
for  which  Gothic  forms  are  still  largely  employed,  as  in  the  Pro- 
testant Cathedral  of  All  Saints  now  building  at  Albany, 
N.  Y.  (by  R.  \V.  Gibson}.  For  the  most  part  the  works  of  the 
last  twenty  years  show  a  more  or  less  judicious  eclecticism,  the 
choice  of  style  being  determined  partly  by  the  person  and  training 
of  the  designer,  partly  by  the  nature  of  the  building.  The  power- 
fully conceived  works  of  Richardson,  in  a  free  version  of  the 
French  Romanesque,  for  a  time  exercised  a  wide  influence,  es- 
pecially among  the  younger  architects.  Trinity  Church, 
Boston  (Fig.  227),  his  earliest  important  work;  many  public 
libraries  and  business  buildings,  and  finally  the  impressive 

County  Buildings  at  Pitts- 
.  burgh  (Pa.),  all  treated  in 
this  style,  are  admirable 
rather  for  the  strong  indi- 
viduality of  their  designer, 


PIC.    228. LIBRARY    AT    WOIU'RN',    MASS. 


displayed  in  their  vigorous  composition,  than  on  account  of  the 
historic  style  he  employed  (Fig.  228).  Flexible  in  his  hands,  it 
proved  intractable  in  those  of  many  of  his  imitators,  and  was  so 


408  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

often  travestied  by  inferior  designers  that  it  lost  its  vogue  within 
a  few  years  after  Richardson's  death.  The  Chicago  Columbian 
Exhibition  in  which  various  architects  collaborated,  using  Ren- 
aissance motives,  completed  its  extinction.  Since  1893  the  Ren- 
aissance styles  have  generally  prevailed,  though  here  also  a  wide 
eclecticism  prevails  as  to  the  version  or  particular  phase  of  these 
styles  to  be  employed.  Meanwhile  there  are  many  more  or  less 
successful  ventures  in  other  historic  styles  applied  to  public  and 
private  edifices.  Underlying  this  apparent  confusion  in  the  use 
of  historic  styles,  the  careful  observer  may  detect  certain  tenden- 
cies crystallizing  into  definite  form.  New  materials  and  methods 
of  construction,  increased  attention  to  detail,  a  growing  sense  of 
monumental  requirements,  even  the  development  of  the  elevator 
as  a  substitute  for  the  grand  staircase,  are  leaving  their  mark  on 
the  planning,  the  proportions,  and  the  artistic  composition  of 
American  buildings,  irrespective  of  the  styles  used.  The  art  is 
with  us  in  a  state  of  transition,  and  open  to  criticism  in  many 
respects;  but  it  appears  to  be  full  of  life  and  promise  for  the 
future. 

COMMERCIAL  BUILDINGS.  This  class  of  edifices  has  in 
our  great  cities  developed  wholly  new  types,  which  have  taken 
shape  under  four  imperative  influences.  These  are  the  demand 
for  fire-proof  construction,  the  demand  for  well-lighted  offices, 
the  introduction  of  elevators,  and  the  concentration  of  business 
into  limited  areas,  within  which  land  has  become  inordinately 
costly.  These  causes  have  led  to  the  erection  of  buildings  of 
excessive  height  (Fig.  229);  the  more  recent  among  them  con- 
structed with  a  framework  of  iron  or  steel  columns  and  beams, 
the  visible  walls  being  a  mere  filling-in.  To  render  a  building  of 
twenty  stories  attractive  to  the  eye,  especially  when  built  on  an 
irregular  site,  is  a  difficult  problem,  of  which  a  wholly  satisfactory 
solution  has  yet  to  be  found.  There  have  been,  however,  some 
notable  achievements  in  this  line,  in  most  of  which  the  principle 
has  been  clearly  recognized  that  a  lofty  building  should  have  a 


ARCHITECTURE   IX    THK    UNITED    STATES. 


409 


well-marked  basement  or  pedestal  and  a  somewhat  ornate  crown- 
ing portion  or  capital,  the  intervening  stories  sen-ing  as  a  die  or 
shaft  and  being  treated  with  comparative  simplicity.  The  diffi- 
culties of  scale  and  of  handling  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  three 
hundred  windows  of  uniform  style,  have  been  surmounted  with 
conspicuous  skill  (West  Street  Building  [Cass  Gilbert],  Ameri- 
can Surety  Building  [Bruce  Price,  1847-1902],  and  Broadway 
Chambers,  New  York;  Ames  Build- 
ing, Boston;  Carnegie  Building,  Pitts- 
burgh; Union  Trust,  St.  Louis).  In 
some  cases,  especially  in  Chicago  and 
the  Middle  West,  the  metallic  frame- 
work is  suggested  by  slender  piers 
between  the  windows,  rising  uninter- 
rupted from  the  basement  to  the  top 
story.  In  others,  especially  in  New 
York  and  the  East,  the  walls  are 
treated  as  in  ordinary  masonry  build- 
ings. Since  1906  the  tendency  to- 
ward excessive  height  has  in  New 
York  reached  an  extravagant  extreme 
in  the  Singer  Building,  625  feet  high, 
and  the  Metropolitan  Life  Building, 
700  feet  high.  These  towers  are  out 
of  scale  with  their  own  details  and  with  surrounding  buildings, 
and  belong  almost  more  in  the  domain  of  engineering  than  of 
architecture.  In  the  details  of  American  office-buildings  every 
variety  of  style  is  to  be  met  with;  but  the  Romanesque  and  the 
Renaissance,  freely  modified,  predominate.  The  tendency  to- 
ward two  or  three  well-marked  types  in  the  external  compo- 
sition of  these  buildings,  as  above  suggested,  indicates,  however, 
the  evolution  of  a  style  in  which  the  historic  origin  of  the  details 
will  l>e  a  secondary  matter.  Certain  Chicago  architects  have 
developed  an  original  treatment  of  architectural  forms  by  ex- 


no.  22Q. "  TIMES  "  BUILDING, 

NEW     YORK. 


4io 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


aggerating  some  of  the  structural  lines,  by  suppressing  the 
mouldings  and  more  familiar  historic  forms,  and  by  the  free  use 
of  flat  surface  ornament.  The  Schiller,  Auditorium,  and  Fischer 
Buildings,  all  at  Chicago,  Guaranty  Building,  Buffalo,  and 
Majestic  Building,  Detroit,  all  by  L.  H.  Sullivan,  are  examples 
of  this  personal  style,  which  illustrates  the  untrammelled  free- 
dom of  the  art  in  a  land  without  traditions. 


FIG.  230. — COUNTRY  HOUSE  AT  XVACK,  N.  Y. 

DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE.  It  is  in  this  field  that  the 
most  characteristic  and  original  phases  of  American  architecture 
are  to  be  met  with,  particularly  in  rural  and  suburban  residences. 
In  these  the  peculiar  requirements  of  our  varying  climates  and  of 
American  domestic  life  have  been  studied  and  in  large  measure 
met  with  great  frankness  and  artistic  appreciation.  The  broad 
staircase-hall,  serving  often  as  a  sort  of  family  sitting-room,  the 
"piazza"  or  veranda,  and  a  picturesque  massing  of 'steep  roofs, 


ARCHITECTURE   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES.         4!  I 

have  been  the  controlling  factors  in  the  evolution  of  two  or  three 
general  types  which  appear  in  infinite  variations.  The  material 
most  used  is  wood,  but  this  has  had  less  influence  in  the  de- 
termination of  form  than  might  have  been  expected.  In  recent 
years,  however,  various  forms  of  construction  in  tile  and  in  con- 
crete have  begun  to  displace  wood  and  shingle  as  a  material 
for  rural  houses.  The  artlessness  of  the  planning,  which  is  ar- 
ranged to  afford  the  maximum  of  convenience  rather  than  to 
conform  to  any  traditional  type,  has  been  an  element  of  great 
artistic  success.  It  has  resulted  in  exteriors  which  are  the 
natural  outgrowth  of  the  interior  arrangements,  frankly  ex- 
pressed, without  affectation  of  style  (Fig.  230).  The  resulting 
picturesqueness  has,  however,  in  many  cases  been  treated  as 
an  end  instead  of  an  incidental  result,  and  the  affectation  of 
picturesqueness  has  in  such  designs  become  as  detrimental  as 
any  affectation  of  style.  In  the  internal  treatment  of  American 
houses  there  has  also  been  a  notable  artistic  advance,  harmony 
of  color  and  domestic  comfort  and  luxury  being  sought  after 
rather  than  monumental  effects.  A  number  of  large  city  and 
country  houses  designed  on  a  palatial  scale  have,  however,  given 
opportunity  for  a  more  elaborate  architecture;  notably  the 
Vanderbilt,  Reid,  Carnegie,  Schwab,  and  Phipps  residences  at 
New  York,  the  great  country-seat  of  Biltmore  near  Asheville 
(N.  C.),  in  the  Francis  I.  style  (by  R.  M.  Hunt},  and  many  others. 
Many  of  the  more  important  among  recent  country  houses  follow 
Colonial  models  with  marked  success.  The  style  lends  itself 
to  a  certain  dignity  and  elegance  of  treatment  which  are  well 
suited  to  large  residences,  and  which  are  further  enhanced  in 
many  cases  by  grounds  whose  elaborate  landscape  gardening 
shows  notable  progress  in  an  art  that  was  long  almost  wholly 
neglected  in  this  country. 

OTHER  BUILDINGS.  American  architects  have  generally 
been  less  successful  in  public,  administrative,  and  ecclesiastical 
architecture  than  in  commercial  and  domestic  work.  The  pre- 


412 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


ference  for  small  parish  churches,  treated  as  audience-rooms 
rather  than  as  places  of  worship,  has  interfered  with  the  develop- 
ment of  noble  types  of  church-buildings.  Yet  there  are  signs  of 
improvement;  and  many  of  the  more  recent  churches,  whether  in 
Gothic  style  or  in  some  form  of  the  neo-classic,  are  marked  by 
great  dignity  of  effect  and  sound  construction.  In  semi-public 
architecture,  such  as  hotels,  theatres,  clubs,  and  libraries,  there 


Fit;.    231. — COUNTRY    HOUSE    IN    COLONIAL   STYLE. 

(From  The  American  Architect.) 

are  many  notable  examples  of  successful  design.  The  Ponce 
de  Leon  Hotel  at  St.  Augustine,  a  sumptuous  and  imposing  pile 
in  a  free  version  of  the  Spanish  Plateresco  ( Can  ere  and  Hast- 
ings}; the  Auditorium  Theatre  at  Chicago,  the  Madison  Square 
Garden  and  the  Casino  Theatre  at  New  York,  all  erected  1880- 
90,  marked  each  a  notable  advance  in  design  over  previous  works 
of  the  same  kind.  The  Century,  Metropolitan  and  University 
Clubs  at  New  York  and  the  Boston  Public  Library  (all  by 
.\fcKim,  Mead  and  White),  the  Carnegie  Library  at  Pittsburgh, 
the  Congressional  Library  at  Washington,  the  Minnesota 


ARCHITECTURE   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES.         413 

State  Capitol  at  St.  Paul  (Cass  Gilbert}  and  the  new  New  York 
Public  Library  (Carrere  and  Hastings)  exemplify  in  varying 
degrees  of  excellence  the  increasing  capacity  of  American  archi- 
tects for  monumental  design.  The  beginnings  of  this  new  taste 
for  monumental  effects  were  shown  in  the  buildings  of  the 
Columbian  Exposition  at  Chicago  in  1893.  These,  in  spite  of 
many  faults  of  detail,  constituted  a  scenic  display  of  architectural 
splendor  such  as  had  never  before  been  seen  on  this  side  the 
Atlantic.  They  further  brought  architecture  into  closer  union 
with  the  allied  arts  and  formed  an  object  lesson  in  the  value  of 
appropriate  landscape  gardening  as  a  setting  to  monumental 
structures. 

RECENT  AMERICAN  ARCHITECTURE.  The  architectural 
activity  of  the  United  States  since  the  new  century  opened  has  by 
no  means  been  confined  to  industrial  and  commercial  architecture. 
Indeed,  while  the  erection  of  lofty  office-buildings  has  continued 
in  the  great  commercial  centres,  the  most  notable  architectural 
enterprises  of  recent  years  have  been  in  the  field  of  educational 
buildings,  in  both  the  East  and  West.  In  1898  a  great  inter- 
national competition  resulted  in  the  selection  of  the  design  of 
Mr.  E.  Benard  of  Paris  for  a  magnificent  group  of  buildings  for 
the  University  of  California  on  a  scale  of  unexampled  grand- 
eur, and  the  erection  of  this  colossal  project  has  been  begun. 
In  New  York  the  university  groups  of  Columbia  University  and 
New  York  University,  both  by  AfcKim,  Mead  and  White  in  neo- 
classic  style  (notably  the  Low  Library  of  Columbia  University), 
and  the  striking  neo-Gothic  group  of  the  City  College  by  G. 
B.  Post,  have  been  carried  far  toward  completion  :  an  equally 
ambitious  project,  by  Cope  and  Sleu'ardson,  has  been  adopted 
for  the  Washington  University  at  St.  Louis;  and  many  other 
universities  and  colleges  have  either  added  extensively  to  their 
existing  buildings  or  planned  an  entire  rebuilding  on  new 
designs.  Among  these  the  national  military  and  naval  academies 
at  West  Point  (Cram,  Goodhne  and  Ferguson),  and  Annapolis 


414  HISTORY   OF    ARCHITECTURE. 

(Ernest  Flagg),  take  the  first  rank  in  the  extent  and  splendor  of 
the  projected  improvements.  Museums  and  libraries  have  also 
been  erected  or  begun  in  various  cities,  and  the  New  York 
Public  Library,  already  mentioned,  but  still  uncompleted,  will 
rank  in  cost  and  beauty  with  those  already  erected  in  Boston 
and  Washington. 

In  other  departments  mention  should  be  made  of  recent  Fed- 
eral buildings  (custom-houses,  post-offices,  and  court-houses) 
erected  under  the  provisions  of  the  Tarsney  act  from  designs 
secured  by  competition  among  the  leading  architects  of  the  coun- 
try; among  these  the  New  York  Custom  House,  by  Cass  Gil- 
bert, is  the  most  important,  but  other  buildings,  at  Washington, 
Indianapolis,  Cleveland  and  elsewhere,  are  also  conspicuous, 
and  many  of  them  worthy  of  high  praise.  The  tendency  to 
award  the  designing  of  important  public  buildings,  such  as  State 
capitols,  county  court-houses,  city  halls,  libraries,  and  hospitals, 
by  competition  instead  of  by  personal  and  political  favor,  has 
resulted  in  a  marked  improvement  in  the  quality  of  American 
public  architecture. 

MONUMENTS.  (Ch.  =  church;  Ho.  =  house). —I.  COLONIAL:  In 
NEW  ENGLAND. — Cradock  Ho.,  Medford,  Mass.,  1634;  Witches' 
Ho.,  Salem,  1640;  Old  Stone  Ho.,  Guilford,  Conn.,  1640;  Warner 
Ho.,  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  1714;  Peppcrell  Ho.,  Kittery,  Me., 
1725;  Town  House,  Newport,  R.  I.,  by  Munday,  1743;  Hooper 
Ho.,  Danvers,  Mass.,  1744;  Vassall-Craigie  Ho.,  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  1759;  City  Hall,  Newport,  R.  I.,  1760,  by  P.  Harrison; 
Langdon,  Wentworth  and  Pierce  houses,  Portsmouth,  N.  H. ; 
Ladd  Ho.,  Marblehead ;  Cowles  Ho.,  Farmington,  Conn.,  1780; 
Count  Rumford  Ho.,  No.  Woburn,  Mass.,  1790;  Hollcster  Ho., 
Greenfield,  Mass.,  1797. — The  "Old  Ship"  Church,  Hingham, 
Mass.,  1681 ;  Old  South  Church,  Boston,  1729;  Farmington  Ch., 
Conn.,  1750;  Old  North  Ch. ;  King's  Chapel,  Boston. — The  Old 
State  House,  Boston,  1748?;  Faneuil  Hall,  Boston,  by  P.  Smibcrt, 
1763;  City  Hall  (Old  State  House),  Hartford,  Conn.,  1812,  by 
Hulfinch. — In  MIDDLE  STATES: — Phillipse  Manor,  Yonkcrs,  N.  Y., 
1682;  Independence  Hall,  Phila.,  by  Hamilton,  1739;  Bartram  Ho., 


ARCHITECTURE   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES.         415 

Philadelphia,  1730;  Morris  (Jumcl)  Mansion,  N.  V.  City,  1758; 
Cortlandt  Manor,  N.  Y.  City,  1760?;  Verplanck  Ho.,  Fishkill,  N.  V., 
1740;  Fraunces'  Tavern,  N.  V.  City,  1710;  Pennsylvania  Hospital, 
Philadelphia,  1796.— Old  Swedes'  Ch.,  Philadelphia,  1700;  St. 
Peter's  Ch.,  Philadelphia,  1758;  St.  Paul's  Ch.,  N.  Y.  City,  1764; 
St.  John's  Ch.,  N.  Y.  City,  1807;  Christ  Church,  Philadelphia,  1727, 
restored  1836. 

In  SOUTHERN  COLONIES. — Shirley  Ho.,  Va.,  1700;  Court  House, 
Williamsburg,  Va.,  1700;  Stratford  Ho.,  Va.,  1730;  Carter's  Grove 
and  Westover,  Va.,  1737;  Tulip  Hill,  Md.,  1750;  Bull  Pringle  Man- 
sion, Charleston,  S.  C.,  1765;  Crane  Ho.,  Harwood  Ho.,  and  Chase 
Ho.,  Annapolis,  Md.,  1770;  State  House,  Annapolis,  1772-85;  Chews 
Ho.,  Germantown,  Pa.,  1772;  Mt.  Vernon,  Va.,  by  G.  Washington, 
1784;  Brandon,  Va.,  170x3;  Sabine  Hill,  Va.,  1/90;  Tayloe  Ho. 
("Octagon"),  Washington,  D.  C.,  1800;  Homewood,  Baltimore, 
Md.,  1804;  Whitehall,  Md.,  1804;  St.  Luke's,  Smithtield,  Va.,  1632?- 
1680? ;  St.  John's  Ch.,  Hampton,  Va.,  1660 ;  Christ  Ch.,  Williamsburg, 
Va.,  1678;  St.  James'  Ch.,  Goose  Creek,  Va.,  1711;  Bruton  Parish 
Ch.,  Va.,  1715  (restored  1898)  ;  St.  Paul's,  Norfolk,  Va.,  1730;  St. 
Phillip's,  Charleston,  S.  C.,  1733;  St.  Michael's,  Charleston,  S.  C., 
1752. 

II.  THE  CLASSIC  REVIVALS. — White  House,  Washington,  D.  C.,  by 
J.  Hoban,  1795  ;  Capitol,  Washington,  D.  C.,  begun  1793  by  Thornton; 
cont.  1795  by  Hallct,  Hatficld,  1803  by  Latrobc,  1817  by  Bullfinch; 
extended   1860  by   Walter;   Mass.   State  House,   Boston,   Mass.,  by 
Bulfinch,  1795;   Treasury  Dep't,   Patent   Office,   Washington,    1830- 
45;   Marine   Exchange,   Philadelphia,    1815,  by  Strickland;   Girard 
College,   Philadelphia,   1847,  by   Walter;   Schuylkill   Water   Works. 
Philadelphia;    Sub-Treasury,   City   Bank    (Old   Custom    House,   at 
first  Merchants'  Exchange),   1844,  by  /.   Rogers;   St.   Mark's   Ch., 
in  New  York  City;  Custom  House,  Boston,  Mass;  State  Capitol, 
Columbus,   O.,    1833;    many   city    halls,    State    capitols,   banks   and 
churches  in  neo-Greek  style. 

III.  THE  GOTHIC  REVIVAL.— Trinity  Ch..  New  York,  1843-46,  by 
R.  Upjohn;  Grace  Ch.,  do.,  1858,  by  /.  Rcnwick;  St.  George's  Ch., 
do.,  by  /..  r.idlitz;  St.  Patrick's  Cath.,  do.  by  /    Kenwick,  1870-83; 
Central  Ch.,  Boston,  1868,  by  l\'.  M.   I'pjohn;  Connecticut  Capitol, 
Hartford,  1876-78,  by  the  same;  Fine  Arts  Museum,  Boston,  1876. 
by  Stur^is  and  lirigham. 

(The  monuments  of  the  more  recent  architectural  movements 
are  omitted  because  of  their  great  number.) 


CHAPTER    XXVIII. 

ORIENTAL   ARCHITECTURE. 

INDIA,   CHINA,   AND   JAPAN. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED:  Cole,  Monographs  0}  Ancient  Monu- 
ments of  India.  Conder,  Notes  on  Japanese  Architecture  (in 
Transactions  of  R.  I.  B.  A.,  for  1886).  Cram,  Impressions  oj 
Japanese  Architecture.  Cunningham,  Archaeological  Sumey  o) 
India.  Fergusson,  Indian  and  Eastern  Architecture;  Picturesque 
Illustrations  of  Indian  Architecture.  Le  Bon,  Les  Monuments  de 
I'Inde.  Morse,  Japanese  Houses.  Stirling,  Asiatic  Researches. 
Consult  also  the  Journal  and  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal 
Asiatic  Society. 

INTRODUCTORY  NOTE.  The  architecture  of  the  non-Moslem 
countries  and  races  of  Asia  has  been  reserved  for  this  closing 
chapter,  in  order  not  to  interrupt  the  continuity  of  the  history  of 
European  styles,  with  which  it  has  no  affinity  and  scarcely  even  a 
point  of  contact.  Among  them  all,  India  alone  has  produced 
monuments  of  great  architectural  importance.  The  buildings 
of  China  and  Japan,  although  interesting  for  their  style,  methods, 
and  detail,  and  so  deserving  at  least  of  brief  mention,  are  for  the 
most  part  of  moderate  size  and  of  perishable  materials.  Outside 
of  these  three  countries  there  is  little  to  interest  the  general  stu- 
dent of  architecture. 

INDIA:  PERIODS.  It  is  difficult  to  classify  the  non-Mohamme- 
dan styles  of  India,  owing  to  their  frequently  overlapping,  both 
geographically  and  artistically;  while  the  lack  of  precise  dates 
in  Indian  literature  makes  the  chronology  of  many  of  the  monu- 
ments more  or  less  doubtful.  The  divisions  given  below  are  a 


ORIENTAL  ARCHITECTURE — INDIA.  417 

modification  of  those  first  established  by  Fergusson,  and  are  pri- 
marily based  on  the  three  great  religions,  with  geographical  sub- 
divisions, as  follows: 

THE  BUDDHIST  STYLE,  from  the  reign  of  Asoka,  dr.  250 
B.C.,  to  the  seventh  century  A.D.  Its  monuments  occupy  mainly 
a  broad  band  running  northeast  and  southwest,  between 
the  Indian  Desert  and  the  Dekkan.  Offshoots  of  the  style 
are  found  as  far  north  as  Gandhara,  and  as  far  south  as 
Ceylon. 

THE  JAINA  STYLE,  akin  to  the  preceding  if  not  derived  from  it, 
covering  the  same  territory  as  well  as  southern  India;  from  1000 
A.D.  to  the  present  time. 

THE  BRAHMAN  or  HINDU  STYLES,  extending  over  the  whole 
peninsula.  They  are  sub-divided  geographically  into  the  NORTH- 
ERN BRAHMAN,  the  CHALUKYAN  in  the  Dekkan,  and  the  DRAVID- 
IAN  in  the  south;  this  last  style  being  coterminous  with  the  popu- 
lations speaking  the  Tamil  and  cognate  languages.  The  monu- 
ments of  these  styles  are  mainly  subsequent  to  the  tenth  century, 
though  a  few  date  as  far  back  as  the  seventh. 

The  great  majority  of  Indian  monuments  are  religious — tem- 
ples, shrines,  and  monasteries.  Secular  buildings  do  not  appear 
until  after  the  Moslem  conquests,  and  most  of  them  are  quite 
modern. 

GENERAL  CHARACTER.  All  these  styles  possess  certain 
traits  in  common.  While  stone  and  brick  are  both  used,  sand- 
stone predominating,  the  details  are  in  large  measure  derived  from 
wooden  prototypes.  Structural  lines  are  not  followed  in  the 
exterior  treatment,  purely  decorative  considerations  prevailing. 
Ornament  is  equally  lavished  on  all  parts  of  the  building,  and  is 
bewildering  in  its  amount  and  complexity.  Realistic  and  gro- 
tesque sculpture  is  freely  used,  forming  multiplied  horizontal 
bands  of  extraordinary  richness  and  minuteness  of  execution. 
Spacious  and  lofty  interiors  are  rarely  attempted,  but  wonderful 
effects  are  produced  by  seemingly  endless  repetition  of  columns 


41 8  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

in  halls  and  corridors,  and  by  external  emphasis  of  important 
parts  of  the  plan  by  lofty  tower-like  piles  of  masonry. 

The  sources  of  the  various  Indian  styles,  the  origin  of  the  forms 
used,  the  history  of  their  development,  are  all  wrapped  in  obscur- 
ity. All  the  monuments  show  a  fully  developed  style  and  great 
command  of  technical  resources  from  the  outset.  When,  where, 
and  how  these  wrere  attained  is  as  yet  an  unsolved  mystery.  In 
all  its  phases  previous  to  the  Moslem  conquest  Indian  architecture 
appears  like  an  indigenous  art,  borrowing  little  from  foreign  styles 
and  having  little  or  no  affinity  with  the  arts  of  Occidental  nations. 

BUDDHIST  STYLE.  Although  Buddhism  originated  in  the 
sixth  century  B.C.,  the  earliest  architectural  remains  of  the  style 
date  from  its  wide  promulgation  in  India  under  Asoka  (272-236 
B.C.).  Buddhist  monuments  comprise  three  chief  classes  of 
structures:  the  si  upas  or  topes,  which  are  mounds  more  or  less 
domical  in  shape,  enclosing  relic-shrines  of  Buddha,  or  built  to 
mark  some  sacred  spot;  chaityas,  or  temple  halls,  cut  in  the 
rock;  and  viharas,  or  monasteries.  The  style  of  the  detail  varies 
considerably  in  these  three  classes,  but  is  in  general  simpler  and 
more  massive  than  in  the  other  styles  of  India. 

TOPES.  These  are  found  in  groups,  of  which  the  most  impor- 
tant are  at  or  near  Bhilsa  in  central  India,  at  Manikyala  in  the 
northwest,  at  Amravati  in  the  south,  and  in  Ceylon  at  Ruan- 
walli  and  Tuparamaya.  The  best  known  among  them  is  the 
Sanchi  Tope,  near  Bhilsa,  120  feet  in  diameter  and  56  feet  high. 
It  is  surrounded  by  a  richly  carved  stone  rail  or  fence,  with  gate- 
ways of  elaborate  workmanship,  having  three  sculptured  lintels 
crossing  the  carved  uprights.  The  tope  at  Manikyala  is  larger, 
and  dates  from  the  seventh  century.  It  is  exceeded  in  size  by 
many  in  Ceylon,  that  at  Abayagiri  measuring  360  feet  in 
diameter.  Few  of  the  topes  retain  the  tec,  or  model  of  a  shrine, 
which,  like  a  lantern,  once  crowned  each  of  them. 

Besides  the  topes  there  are  a  few  stupas  of  tower-like  form, 
square  in  plan, of. which  the  most  famous  is  that  at  BuddhGaya, 


ORIENTAL   ARCHITECTURE — INDIA.  419 

near  the  sacred  Bodhi  tree,  where  Buddha  attained  divine  light 
in  588  B.C. 

CHAITYA  HALLS.  The  Buddhist  speos-temples— so  far  as 
known  the  only  extant  halls  of  worship  of  that  religion,  except 
one  at  Sanchi — are  mostly  in  the  Bombay  Presidency,  at  Ellora, 
Karli,  Ajanta,  Nassick,  and  Bhaja.  The  earliest,  that  at  Karli, 
dates  from  78  B.C.,  the  latest  (at  Kllora),  dr.  600  A.n.  They  con- 
sist uniformly  of  a  broad  nave  ending  in  an  apse,  and  covered  by 
a  roof  like  a  barrel  vault,  and  two  narrow  side  aisles.  In  the  apse 
is  the  dagoba  or  relic  shrine,  shaped  like  a  miniature  tope.  The 
front  of  the  cave  was  originally  adorned  with  an  open-work  screen 
or  frame  of  wood,  while  the  face  of  the  rock  about  the  opening 
was  carved  into  the  semblance  of  a  sumptuous  structural  facade. 
Among  the  finest  of  these  caverns  is  that  at  Karli,  whose  massive 
columns  and  impressive  scale  recall  Egyptian  models,  though  the 
resemblance  is  superficial  and  has  no  historic  significance.  More 
suggestive  is  the  affinity  of  many  of  the  columns  which  stand 
before  these  caves  to  Persian  prototypes  (see  Fig.  21).  It  is  not 
improbable  that  both  Persian  and  classic  forms  were  introduced 
into  India  through  the  Bactrian  kingdom  250  years  B.C.  Other- 
wise we  must  seek  for  the  origin  of  nearly  all  Buddhist  forms  in  a 
pre-existing  wooden  architecture,  now  wholly  perished,  though 
its  traditions  may  survive  in  the  wooden  screens  in  the  fronts  of 
the  caves.  While  some  of  these  caverns  are  extremely  simple, 
as  at  Bhaja,  others,  especially  at  Nassick  and  Ajanta,  are  of 
great  splendor  and  complexity. 

VIHARAS.  Except  at  Gandhara  in  the  Punjab,  the  structural 
monasteries  of  the  Buddhists  were  probably  all  of  wood  and 
have  long  ago  perished.  The  Gandhara  monasteries  of  Jamal- 
giri  and  Takht-i-Bahi  present  in  plan  three  or  four  courts  sur- 
rounded by  cells.  The  centre  of  one  court  is  in  lx>th  cases  occu- 
pied by  a  platform  for  an  altar  or  shrine.  Among  the  ruins  there 
have  taen  found  a  number  of  capitals  whose  strong  resemblance 
to  the  Corinthian  type  is  now  generally  attributed  to  Byzantine 


420  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

rather  than  Bactrian  influences.  These  viharas  may  therefore 
be  assigned  to  the  sixth  or  seventh  century  A.D. 

The  rock-cut  viharas  are  found  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
chaityas  already  described.  Architecturally  they  are  far  more 
elaborate  than  the  chaityas.  Those  at  Salsette,  Ajanta,  and 
Bagh  are  particularly  interesting,  with  pillared  halls  or  courts, 
cells,  corridors,  and  shrines.  The  hall  of  the  Great  Vihara  at 
Bagh  is  96  feet  square,  with  36  columns.  Adjoining  it  is  the 
school-room,  and  the  whole  is  fronted  by  a  sumptuous  rock-cut 
colonnade  200  feet  long.  These  caves  were  mostly  hewn  be- 
tween the  fifth  and  seventh  centuries,  at  which  time  sculpture 
was  more  prevalent  in  Buddhist  works  than  previously,  and 
some  of  them  are  richly  adorned  with  figures. 

JAINA  STYLE.  The  religion  and  the  architecture  of  the 
Jainas  so  closely  resemble  those  of  the  Buddhists,  that  recent 
authorities  are  disposed  to  treat  the  Jaina  style  as  a  mere  varia- 
tion or  continuation  of  the  Buddhist.  Chronologically  they  are 
separated  by  an  interval  of  some  three  centuries,  dr.  650-950 
A.D.,  which  have  left  us  almost  no  monuments  of  either  style. 
The  Jaina  is  moreover  easily  distinguished  from  the  Buddhist 
architecture  by  the  great  number  and  elaborateness  of  its  struct- 
ural monuments.  The  multiplication  of  statues  of  Tirthankhar 
in  the  cells  about  the  temple  courts,  the  exuberance  of  sculpture, 
the  use  of  domes  built  in  horizontal  courses,  and  the  imitation  in 
stone  of  wooden  braces  or  struts  are  among  its  distinguishing 
features. 

JAINA  TEMPLES.  The  earliest  examples  are  on  Mount  Abu 
in  the  Indian  Desert.  Built  by  Vimalah  Sah  in  1032,  the  chief 
of  these  consist  of  a  court  measuring  140X90  feet,  surrounded  by 
cells  and  a  double  colonnade.  In  the  centre  rises  the  shrine  of 
the  god,  containing  his  statue,  and  terminating  in  a  lofty  tower  or 
sikhra.  An  imposing  columnar  porch,  cruciform  in  plan,  pre- 
cedes this  cell  (Fig.  232).  The  intersection  of  the  arms  is  covered 
by  a  dome  supported  on  eight  columns  with  stone  brackets  or 


ORIENTAL   ARCHITECTURE — INDIA. 


421 


struts.  The  dome  and  columns  are  covered  with  profuse  carving 
and  sculptured  figures,  and  the  total  effect  is  one  of  remarkable 
dignity  and  splendor.  The  temple  of  Sadri  is  much  more  ex- 
tensive, twenty  minor  domes  and  one  of  larger  size  forming  cruci- 
form porches  on  all  four  sides  of  the  central  sikhra.  The  cells 
alxmt  the  court  are  each  covered  by  a  small  sikhra,  and  these, 


FIG.    2.}  2.  —  PORCH    OF   TEMPLE   ON    MOUNT    ABU. 

with  the  twenty-one  domes  (four  of  which  are  built  in  three 
stories),  all  grouped  about  the  central  tower  and  adorned  with 
an  astonishing  variety  of  detail,  constitute  a  monument  of  the 
first  importance.  It  was  built  by  Khumlx>  Rana,  about  M5°- 
At  Girnar  are  several  twelfth-century  temples  with  enclosed  in- 
stead of  open  vestibules.  One  of  these,  that  of  Neminatha,  re- 
tains intact  its  court  enclosure  and  cells,  which  in  most  other 
cases  have  perished.  The  temple  at  Somnath  resembles  it,  hut 
is  larger;  the  dome  of  its  j>orch,  } }  feet  in  diameter,  is  the  largest 


422 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


Jaina  dome  in  India.  Other  notable  temples  are  at  Gwalior. 
Khajuraho,  and  Parasnatha. 

In  all  the  Jaina  temples  the  salient  feature  is  the  sikhra  or 
vimana.  This  is  a  tower  of  approxi- 
mately square  plan,  tapering  by  a  grace- 
ful curve  toward  a  peculiar  terminal 
ornament  shaped  like  a  flattened  melon. 
Its  whole  surface  is  variegated  by  hori- 
zontal bands  and  vertical  breaks,  cov- 
ered with  sculpture  and  carving.  Next 
in  importance  are  the  domes,  built 
wholly  in  horizontal  courses  and  resting 
on  stone  lintels  carried  by  bracketed 
columns.  These  same  traits  appear  in 
relatively  modern  examples,  as  at  Delhi. 
TOWERS.  A  similar  predilection  for 
minutely  broken  surfaces  marks  the 
towers  which  sometimes  adjoin  the 
temples,  as  at  Chittore  (tower  of  Sri 
Allat,  thirteenth  century),  or  were 
erected  as  trophies  of  victory,  like  that 
of  Khumbo  Rana  in  the  same  town 
(Fig.  233).  The  combination  of  hori- 
zontal and  vertical  lines,  the  distribution 
of  the  openings  and  the  rich  ornamen- 
tation of  these  towers  are  very  inter- 
esting, though  lacking  somewhat  in 
structural  propriety  of  design. 

HINDU  STYLES :  NORTHERN  BRAH- 
MAN. The  origin  of  this  style  is  as  yet 
an  unsolved  problem.  Its  monuments 

were  mainly  built  between  600  and  1200  A.D.,  the  oldest  being 
in  Orissa,  at  Bhuwanesevar,  Kanaruk,  and  Puri.  In  northern 
India  the  temples  are  about  equally  divided  between  the  two 


Flfi.     233. TOWER     OF     VIC- 
TORY,  CHITTORE. 


ORIENTAL  ARCHITECTURE— INDIA.  423 

forms  of  Brahmanism — the  worship  of  Vishnu  or  Vaishnavism, 
and  that  of  Siva  or  Shaivism — and  do  not  differ  materially  in 
style.  At  in  the  Jaina  style,  the  vimana  is  their  most  striking 
feature,  and  this  is,in  most  cases  adorned  with  numerous  reduced 
copies  of  its  own  form  ground  in  successive  stages  against  its 
sides  and  angles.  This  curious  system  of  design  appears  in 
nearly  all  the  great  temples,  both  of  Vishnu  and  Siva.  The 
Jaina  melon  ornament  is  universal,  surmounted  generally  by  an 
urn-shaped  finial. 

In  plan  the  vimana  shrine  is  preceded  by  two  or  three  chaml>ers 
square  or  polygonal,  some  with  and  some  without  columns.  The 
foremost  of  these  is  covered  by  a  roof  formed  like  a  stepped 
pyramid  set  cornerwise.  The  fine  porch  of  the  ruined  temple 
at  Bindrabun  is  cruciform  in  plan  and  forms  the  chief  part  of  the 
building,  the  shrine  at  the  further  end  being  relatively  small  and 
its  tower  unfinished  or  ruined.  In  some  modern  examples  the 
antechamber  is  replaced  by  an  open  porch  with  a  Saracenic  dome, 
as  at  Benares;  in  others  the  old  type  is  completely  abandoned,  as 
in  the  temple  at  Kantonnuggur  (1704-22).  This  is  a  square 
hall  built  of  terra-cotta,  with  four  three-arched  porches  and  nine 
towers,  more  Saracenic  than  Brahman  in  general  aspect. 

The  Kandarya  Mahadeo,  at  Khajuraho,  is  the  most  noted 
example  of  the  northern  Brahman  style,  and  one  of  the  most 
splendid  structures  extant.  A  strong  and  lofty  basement  sup- 
ports an  extraordinary  mass  of  roofs,  covering  the  six  open 
porches  and  the  antechamber  and  hypostyle  hall,  which  precede 
the  shrine,  and  rising  in  successive  pyramidal  masses  until  the 
vimana  is  reached  which  covers  the  shrine.  This  is  116  feet 
high,  but  seems  much  loftier,  by  reason  of  the  small  scale  of  its 
constituent  parts  and  the  marvellously  minute  decoration  which 
covers  the  whole  structure.  The  vigor  of  its  masses  and  the 
grand  stairways  which  lead  up  to  it  give  a  dignity  unusual  for  its 
size,  60  X  IOQ  feet  in  plan  (dr.  1000  A.D.). 

At  Puri,  in  Orissa,  the  Temple  of  Jugganat,  with  its  double 


424  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

enclosure  and  numerous  subordinate  shrines,  the  Teli-ka-Mandir 
at  Gvvalior,  and  temples  at  Udaipur  near  Bhilsa,  at  Mukteswara 
in  Orissa,  at  Chittore,  Benares,  and  Barolli,  are  important  exam- 
ples. The  few  tombs  erected  subsequent  to  the  Moslem  con- 
quest, combining  Jaina  bracket  columns  with  Saracenic  domes 
and  picturesquely  situated  palaces  at  Chittore  (1450),  Oudeypore 
(1580),  and  Gwalior,  should  also  be  mentioned. 

CHALUKYAN  STYLE.  Throughout  a  central  zone  crossing 
the  peninsula  from  sea  to  sea  about  the  Dekkan,  and  extending 
south  to  Mysore  on  the  west,  the  Brahmans  developed  a  distinct 
style  during  the  later  centuries  of  the  Chalukyan  dynasty.  Its 
monuments  are  mainly  comprised  between  1050  and  the  Moham- 
medan conquest  in  1310.  The  most  notable  examples  of  the 
style  are  found  along  the  southwest  coast,  at  Hullabid,  Baillur, 
and  Somnathpur. 

TEMPLES.  Chalukyan  architecture  is  exclusively  religious 
and  its  temples  are  easily  recognized.  The  plans  comprise  the 
same  elements  as  those  of  the  Jainas,  but  the  Chalukyan  shrine 
is  always  star-shaped  externally  in  plan,  and  the  vimana  takes 
the  form  of  a  stepped  pyramid  instead  of  a  curved  outline.  The 
Jaina  dome  is,  moreover,  wholly  wanting.  All  the  details  are  of 
extraordinary  richness  and  beauty,  and  the  breaking  up  of  the 
surfaces  by  rectangular  projections  is  skilfully  managed  so  as  to 
produce  an  effect  of  great  apparent  size  with  very  moderate  di- 
mensions. All  the  known  examples  stand  on  raised  platforms, 
adding  materially  to  their  dignity.  Some  are  double  temples, 
as  at  Hullabid  (Fig.  234);  others  are  triple  in  plan.  A  notice- 
able feature  of  the  style  is  the  deeply  cut  stratification  of  the 
lower  part  of  the  temples,  each  band  or  stratum  bearing  a  dis- 
tinct frieze  of  animals,  figures  or  ornament,  carved  with  masterly 
skill.  Pierced  stone  slabs  filling  the  window  openings  are  also 
not  uncommon. 

The  richest  exemplars  of  the  style  are  the  temples  of  Baillur 
and  Somnathpur,  and  at  Hullabid  the  Kait  Iswara  and  the 


ORIENTAL  ARCHITECTURE— INDIA. 


425 


incomplete  Double  Temple.  The  Kurti  Stambha,  or  gate  at 
Worangul,  and  the  Great  Temple  at  Hamoncondah  should  also 
be  mentioned. 

DRAVIDIAN  STYLE.  The  Brahman  monuments  of  south- 
ern India  exhibit  a  style  almost  as  strongly  marked  as  the  Chaluk- 
yan.  This  appears  less 
in  their  details  than  in 
their  general  plan  and 
conception.  The  Dra- 
vidian  temples  are  not 
single  structures,  but 
aggregations  of  build- 
ings of  varied  size  and 
form  covering  extensive 
areas  enclosed  by  walls 
and  entered  through 
gates  made  imposing 
by  lofty  pylons  called 
gopuras.  As  if  to  em- 
phasize these  super- 
ficial resemblances  to 
Egyptian  models,  the 
sanctuary  is  often  low 
and  insignificant.  It  is 
preceded  by  much  more 
imposing  porches  (man- 
tapas)  and  hypostyle 
halls  or  choultries,  the  latter  being  sometimes  of  extraordinary 
extent,  though  seldom  lofty.  The  choultric,  sometimes  called 
the  Hall  of  1,000  Columns,  is  in  some  cases  replaced  by  pillared 
corridors  of  great  length  and  splendor,  as  at  Ramisseram  and 
Madura.  The  plans  are  in  most  cases  wholly  irregular,  and  the 
architecture,  so  far  from  resembling  the  Egyptian  in  its  scale 
and  massiveness,  is  marked  by  the  utmost  minuteness  of  orna- 


"•.SE3 


KIG.    234. — TEMPI 


426  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

ment  and  tenuity  of  detail,  suggesting  wood  and  stucco  rather 
than  stone.  The  Great  Hall  at  Chillambaram  is  but  10  to  12 
feet  high,  and  the  corridors  at  Ramisseram,  700  feet  long,  are 
but  30  feet  high.  The  effect  of  ensemble  of  the  Dravidian  tem- 
ples is  disappointing.  They  lack  the  emphasis  of  dominant 
masses  and  the  dignity  of  symmetrical  and  logical  arrangement. 
The  very  loftiness  of  the  gopuras  makes  the  buildings  of  the 
group  within  seem  low  by  contrast.  In  nearly  every  temple, 
however,  some  one  feature  attracts  merited  admiration  by  its 
splendor,  extent  or  beauty.  Such  are  the  Choultrie  built  by 
Tirumalla  Nayak  at  Madura  (1623-45),  measuring  333  X  105 
feet;  the  corridors  already  mentioned  at  Ramisseram  and  in  the 
Great  Temple  at  Madura;  the  gopuras  at  Tarputry  and  Vel- 
lore,  and  the  Mantapa  of  Parvati  at  Chillambaram  (1595- 
1685).  Very  noticeable  are  the  compound  columns  of  this  style, 
consisting  of  square  piers  with  slender  shafts  coupled  to  them 
and  supporting  brackets,  as  at  Chillambaram,  Peroor,  and 
Vellore;  the  richly  banded  square  piers,  the  grotesques  of  ram- 
pant horses  and  monsters,  and  the  endless  labor  bestowed  upon 
minute  carving  and  ornament  in  superposed  bands. 

OTHER  MONUMENTS.  Other  important  temples  are  at 
Tiruvalur,  Seringham,  Tinevelly,  and  Conjeveram,  all  alike 
in  general  scheme  of  design,  with  enclosures  varying  from  300  to 
1,000  feet  in  length  and  width.  At  Tanjore  is  a  magnificent 
temple  with  two  courts,  in  the  larger  of  which  stands  a  pagoda  or 
shrine  with  a  pyramidal  vimana,  unusual  in  Uravidian  temples, 
and  beside  it  the  smaller  Shrine  of  Soubramanya  (Fig.  235),  a 
structure  of  unusual  beauty  of  detail.  In  both,  the  vertical  lower 
story  with  its  pilasters  and  windows  is  curiously  suggestive  of 
Renaissance  design.  The  pagoda  dates  from  the  fourteenth, 
the  smaller  temple  from  the  fifteenth  century. 

ROCK-CUT  RATHS.  All  the  above  temples  were  built  subse- 
quently to  the  twelfth  century.  The  rock-cut  shrines  date  in 
some  cases  as  far  back  as  the  seventh  century;  they  are  called 


ORIENTAL   ARCHITECTURE — INDIA. 


427 


kylas  and  raths,  and  are  not  caves,  but  isolated  edifices,  imitating 
structural  designs,  but  hewn  bodily  from  the  rock.  Those  at 
Mahavellii>ore  are  of  diminutive  size;  but  at  Purudkul  there 
is  an  extensive  temple  with  shrine,  choultrie,  and  gopura  sur- 
rounded by  a  court 
enclosure  measuring 
250X150  feet  (ninth 
century).  More  fa- 
mous still  is  the  elal>or- 
ate  Kylas  at  Ellora,  of 
about  the  same  size  as 
the  above,  but  more 
complex,  and  complete 
in  its  details. 


235. — SHKINH 


U'HHAMANVA.    TANJ( 


PALACES.  At  Madura,  Tanjorc,  and  Vijayanagar  are 
Dravidian  palaces,  built  after  the  Mohammedan  conquest  and 
in  a  mixed  style.  The  domical  octagonal  throne-room  and  the 
Great  Hall  at  Madura  (seventeenth  century),  the  most  famous 
edifices  of  the  kind,  were  evidently  inspired  from  (lothic  models, 
but  how  this  came  about  is  not  known.  The  (Ireat  Hall  with 


428  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

its  pointed  arched  barrel  vault  of  67  feet  span,  its  cusped  arches, 
round  piers,  vaulting  shafts,  and  triforium,  appears  strangely 
foreign  to  its  surroundings. 

CAMBODIA.  The  subject  of  Indian  architecture  cannot 
be  dismissed  without  at  least  brief  mention  of  the  immense  temple 
of  NakhonWat  in  Cambodia.  This  stupendous  creation  covers 
an  area  of  a  full  square  mile,  with  its  concentric  courts,  its  encir- 
cling moat  or  lake,  its  causeways,  porches,  and  shrines,  domi- 
nated by  a  central  structure  200  feet  square  with  nine  pagoda-like 
towers.  The  corridors  around  the  inner  court  have  square 
piers  of  almost  classic  Roman  type.  The  rich  carving,  the  per- 
fect masonry,  and  the  admirable  composition  of  the  whole  leading 
up  to  the  central  mass,  indicate  architectural  ability  of  a  high 
order.  Very  remarkable  also  are  the  ruins  in  Java  at  Bora-- 
bador. 

CHINESE  ARCHITECTURE.  No  purely  Mongolian  nation 
appears  ever  to  have  erected  buildings  of  first-rate  importance. 
It  cannot  be  denied,  however,  that  the  Chinese  are  possessed  of 
considerable  decorative  skill  and  mechanical  ingenuity;  and 
these  qualities  are  the  most  prominent  elements  in  their  buildings. 
Great  size  and  splendor,  massiveness  and  originality  of  con- 
struction, they  do  not  possess.  Built  in  large  measure  of.^yood, 
cleverly  framed  and  decorated  with  a  certain  richness  of  color  and 
ornament,  with  a  large  element  of  the  grotesque  in  the  decoration, 
the  Chinese  temples,  pagodas,  and  palaces  are  interesting  rather 
than  impressive.  There  is  not  a  single  architectural  monument 
of  imposing  size  or  of  great  antiquity,  so  far  as  we  know.  The 
celebrated  Porcelain  Tower  of  Nankin  is  no  longer  extant,  hav- 
ing been  destroyed  in  the  Topping  rebellion  in  1850.  It  was  a 
nine-storied  polygonal  pagoda  236  feet  high,  revetted  with  porce- 
lain tiles,  and  was  built  in  1412.  The  largest  of  Chinese  temples, 
that  of  the  Great  Dragon  at  Pekin,  is  a  circular  structure  of 
moderate  size,  though  its  enclosure  is  nearly  a  mile  square.  Pa- 
godas with  diminishing  stories,  elaborately  carved  entrance  gates 


ORIENTAL   ARCHITECTURE— JAPAN.  429 

and  successive  terraces  are  mainly  relied  upon  for  effect.  They 
show  little  structural  art,  but  much  clever  ornament.  Like  the 
monasteries  and  the  vast  lamaseries  of  Thibet,  they  belong  to  the 
Buddhist  religion. 

Aside  from  the  ingenious  framing  and  bracketing  of  the  car- 
pentry, the  most  striking  peculiarity  of  Chinese  buildings  is  their 
broad-spreading  tiled  roofs.  These  invariably  slope  downward 
in  a  curve,  and  the  tiling,  with  its  hip-ridges,  crestings,  and  fmials 
in  terra-cotta  or  metal,  adds  materially  to  the  picturesqueness  of 
the  general  effect.  Color  and  gilding  are  freely  used,  and  in  some 
cases — as  in  a  summer  pavilion  at  Pekin — porcelain  tiling  covers 
the  walls,  with  brilliant  effect.  The  chief  wonder  is  that  this 
resource  of  the  architectural  decorator  has 'not  been  further  devel- 
oped in  China,  where  porcelain  and  earthenware  are  otherwise 
treated  with  such  remarkable  skill. 

JAPANESE  ARCHITECTURE.  Apparently  associated  in  race 
with  the  Chinese  and  Koreans,  the  Japanese  are  far  more  artistic 
in  temperament  than  either  of  their  neighbors.  The  refinement 
and  originality  of  their  decorative  art  have  given  it  a  wide  reputa- 
tion. Unfortunately  the  prevalence  of  earthquakes  has  com- 
bined with  the  influence  of  the  traditional  habits  of  the  people  to 
prevent  the  maturing  of  a  truly  monumental  architecture.  Ex- 
cept for  the  terraces,  gates,  and  enclosures  of  their  palaces  and 
temples,  wood  is  the  predominant  building  material.  It  is  used 
substantially  as  in  China,  the  framing,  dovetailing,  bracketing, 
broad  eaves  and  tiled  roofs  of  Japan  closely  resembling  those  of 
China.  The  chief  difference  is  in  the  greater  refinement  and 
delicacy  of  the  Japanese  details  and  the  more  monumental  dis- 
position of  the  temple  terraces,  the  beauty  of  which  is  greatly 
enhanced  by  skilful  landscape  gardening.  The  gateways  recall 
somewhat  those  of  the  Sanchi  Tope  in  India  (p.  418),  but  are 
commonly  of  wood.  Owing  to  the  danger  from  earthquakes, 
lofty  towers  and  pagodas  are  rarely  seen. 

The  domestic  architecture  of  Japan,  though  interesting  for  its 


43O  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

arrangements,  and  for  its  sensible  and  artistic  use  of  the  most 
flimsy  materials,  is  too  trivial  in  scale,  detail  and  construction  to 
receive  more  than  passing  reference.  Even  the  great  palace  at 
Tokio,*  covering  an  immense  area,  is  almost  entirely  composed 
of  one-storied  buildings  of  wood,  with  little  of  splendor  or  architec- 
tural dignity. 

MONUMENTS:  (additional  to  those  in  text).  BUDDHIST:  Topes 
at  Sanchi,  Sonari,  Satdara,  Andher,  in  Central  India ;  at  Sarnath, 
near  Benares ;  at  Jelalabad  and  Salsette ;  in  Ceylon  at  Anuradhapura, 
Tuparamaya,  Lankaramaya. — Grotto  temples  (chaityas),  mainly  in 
Bombay  and  Bengal  Presidencies ;  at  Behar,  especially  the  Lomash 
Rishi.  and  Cuttack;  at  Bhaja,  Bedsa,  Ajunta,  and  Ellora  (Wis- 
wakarma  Cave);  in  Salsette,  the  Kenheri  Cave. — Vilharas :  Struc- 
tural at  Nalanda  and  Sarnath,  demolished ;  rock-cut  in  Bengal,  at 
Cuttack,  Udayagiri  (the  Ganesa)  ;  in  the  west,  many  at  Ajanta, 
also  at  Bagh,  Bedsa,  Bhaja,  Nassick  (the  Nahapana,  Yadnya  Sri, 
etc.),  Salsette,  Ellora  (the  Dekrivaria,  etc.).  In  Nepal,  stupas  of 
Swayanbunath  and  Bouddhama. 

JAINA  :  Temples  at  Aiwulli,  Kanaruc  (Black  Pagoda),  and 
Purudkul ;  groups  of  temples  at  Palitana,  Girnar,  Mount  Abu, 
Somnath,  Parisnath  ;  the  Sas  Bahu  at  Gwalior,  1093;  Parswanatha 
and  Ganthai  (650)  at  Khajuraho;  temple  at  Gyraspore,  7th  cen- 
tury; modern  temples  at  Ahmedabad  (Huttising),  Delhi,  and  Sona- 
ghur;  in  the  south  at  Moodbidri,  Sravana  Belgula;  towers  at 
Chittore. 

NORTHERN  BRAHMAN:  Temples,  Parasumareswara  (500  A.D.), 
Mukteswara,  and  Great  Temple  (600-650),  all  at  Bhuwaneswar, 
among  many  others ;  of  Papanatha  at  Purudkul ;  grotto  temples  at 
Dhumnar,  Ellora,  and  Poonah;  temples  at  Chandravati,  Udaipur, 
and  Amritsur  (the  last  modern)  ;  tombs  of  Singram  Sing  and 
others  at  Oudeypore;  of  Rajah  Baktawar  at  Ulwar,  and  others  at 
Goverdhun ;  ghats  or  landings  at  Benares  and  elsewhere. 

CHALUKYAN:  Temples  at  Buchropully  and  ?lamoncondah,  1163; 
ruins  at  Kalyani ;  grottoes  of  Hazar  Khutri. 

DRAVIDIAN  :    Rock-cut  temples    (raths)    at   Mahavellipore ;    Tiger 

*See  Transactions  R.  I.  B.  A.,  52d  year,  1886,  article  by  R.  J. 
Conder,  pp.  185-214. 


ORIENTAL   ARCHITECTURE — JAPAN.  43! 

Cave  at  Saluvan  Kuppan;  temples  at  Pittadkul  (Purudkul),  Tiru- 
valur,  Combaconum,  Vellore,  Peroor,  Vijayanagar;  pavilions  at 
Tanjore  and  Vijayanagar. 

There  are  also  many  temples  in  the    Kashmir  Valley  difficult  of 
assignment  to  any  of  the  above  styles  and  religions. 


GLOSSARY 
OF   TERMS    NOT  DEFINED   IN    THE   TEXT. 


ALCAZAR  (Span.,  from  Arabic  Al 
Kasr},  a  palace  or  castle,  espe- 
cially of  a  governing  official. 

ARC  HI  VOLT,  a  band  or  group  of 
mouldings  decorating  the  wall- 
face  of  an  arch  ;  or  a  transverse 
arch  projecting  slightly  from 
the  surface  of  a  barrel  or 
groined  vault. 

ASTYLAR,  without  columns. 

BALNEA,  a  Roman  bathing  estab- 
lishment, less  extensive  than 
the  thermae. 

BEL  ETAGE,  the  principal  story  of 
a  building,  containing  the  re- 
ception rooms  and  saloons ; 
usually  the  second  story  (first 
above  the  ground  story). 

BROKEN  ENTABLATURE,  an  entab- 
lature which  projects  forward 
over  each  column  or  pilaster, 
returning  back  to  the  wall  and 
running  along  with  diminished 
projection  between  the  col- 
umns, as  in  the  Arch  of  Con- 
stantine  (Fig.  63). 

CANTONED  PIERS,  piers  adorned 
with  columns  or  pilasters  at 
the  corners  or  on  the  outer 
faces. 


CARTOUCHE  (Fr.),  an  ornament 
shaped  like  a  shield  or  oval. 
In  Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  the 
oval  encircling  the  name  of  a 
king. 

CAVETTO,  a  moulding  of  concave, 
quarter-round  section. 

CHEVRON,  a  V-shaped  ornament. 

CHRYSELEPHANTINE,  of  ivory  and 
gold;  used  of  statues  in  which 
the  nude  portions  are  of  ivory 
and  the  draperies  of  gold. 

CONSOLE,  a  large  scroll-shaped 
bracket  or  ornament  having 
its  broadest  curve  at  the  bot- 
tom. 

CORINTHIANESOUE,  resembling 
the  Corinthian ;  used  of  capi- 
tals having  corner-volutes  and 
acanthus  leaves,  but  combined 
otherwise  than  in  the  classic 
Corinthian  type. 


EMPAISTIC,  made  of,  or  overlaid 
with,  sheet-metal  beaten  or 
hammered  into  decorative  pat- 
terns. 

KXKDR.I-:,  curved  scats  of  stone; 
niches  or  recesses,  sometimes 
of  considerable  si/e,  provided 
with  seats  for  the  public. 


434      GLOSSARY   OF   TERMS   NOT   DEFINED   IN   TEXT. 


FENESTRATION,  the  whole  system 
or  arrangement  of  windows 
and  openings  in  an  architect- 
ural composition. 

FOUR-PART.  A  four-part  vault  is 
a  groined  vault  formed  by  the 
intersection  of  two  barrel 
vaults.  Its  diagonal  edges  or 
groins  divide  it  into  four  sec- 
tions, triangular  in  plan,  each 
called  a  compartment. 

GIGANTOMACHIA,  a  group  or  com- 
position representing  the  myth- 
ical combat  between  the  gods 
and  the  giants. 

HALF-TIMBERED,  constructed  with 
a  timber  framework  showing 
externally,  and  filled  in  with 
masonry  or  brickwork  or  lath- 
and-plaster. 

IMAUM,  imam,  a  Mohammedan 
priest. 

KAABAH,  the  sacred  shrine  at 
Mecca,  a  nearly  cubical  struct- 
ure hung  with  black  cloth. 

KARAFAH,  a  region  in  Cairo  con- 
taining the  so-called  tombs  of 
the  Khalifs. 

LACONICUM,  the  sweat-room  in  a 
Roman  bath  ;  usually  of  dom- 
ical design  in  the  larger 
thcrmcc. 

LADY  CHAPEL,  in  many  cathe- 
drals the  central  or  axial 
chapel  of  the  chcz>ct,  usually 
longer  and  richer  than  the  rest. 


and  dedicated  to  the  Virgin 
Mary ;  any  chapel  to  the  Virgin 
may  receive  the  name. 

MEZZANINE,  a  low,  intermediate 
story. 

MUEDDIN  (or  muezzin},  a  Mo- 
hammedan mosque-official  who 
calls  to  prayer. 

NARTHEX,   a   porch   or   vestibule 
running  across  the  front  of  a 
basilica  or  church. 
NEO-GOTHIC,       )  in  a  style  which 
NEO-MEDI.EVAL,  ]  seeks  to  revive 
and  adapt  or  apply  to  modern 
uses  the   forms  of  the  Middle 
Ages. 

OCULUS,  a  circular  opening,  espe- 
cially in  the  crown  of  a  dome. 

OGEE  ARCH,  one  composed  of  two 
juxtaposed  S-shaped  or  wavy 
curves,  meeting  in  a  point  at 
the  top. 

PAL.ESTRA,  an  establishment 
among  the  ancient  Greeks  for 
physical  training. 

PAVILION  (Fr.  pavilion),  ordi- 
narily a  light  open  structure 
of  ornate  design.  As  applied 
to  architectural  composition,  a 
projecting  section  of  a  facade, 
usually  rectangular  in  plan, 
and  having  its  own  distinct 
mass  of  roof. 

PRESBYTERY,  the  eastern  part  of 
the  choir,  beyond  the  choir 
stalls  or  choir  proper,  reserved 
for  the  officiating  clergy,  and 


GLOSSARY   OF  TERMS   NOT   DEFINED    IN   TEXT.      435 


raised    a    step    or   two    higher 
than  the  choir  itself. 

QUARRY  ORNAMENT,  any  orna- 
ment covering  a  surface  with 
two  series  of  reticulated  lines 
enclosing  approximately  quad- 
rangular spaces  or  meshes. 

QUATREFOIL,  with  four  leaves  or 
foils;  composed  of  four  arcs 
of  circles  meeting  in  cusps 
pointing  inward. 

QUOINS,  slightly  projecting  blocks 
of  stone,  alternately  long  and 
short,  decorating  or  strength- 
ening a  corner  or  angle  of  a 
facade. 

RETRO-CHOIR,  any  space  east  of 
the  apse  or  presbytery  of  a 
church,  especially  a  chapel  or 
enlarged  ambulatory. 

REVETMENT,  a  veneering  or 
sheathing. 

RUSTICATION,  treatment  of  the 
masonry  with  blocks  having 
roughly  broken  faces,  or  with 


deeply     grooved     or     bevelled 
joints. 

SOFFIT,  the  under-side  of  an 
architrave,  beam,  arch,  or 
corona. 

SPANDRIL,  'the  triangular  wall- 
space  between  two  contiguous 
arches. 

SOUINCH,  a  bit  of  conical  vault- 
ing filling  in  the  angles  of  a 
square  so  as  to  provide  an 
octagonal  or  circular  base  for 
a  dome  or  lantern. 

STOA,  an  open  colonnade  for 
public  resort. 

TEPIDARIUM,  the  hot-water  hall 
or  chamber  of  a  Roman  bath. 

TYMPANUM,  the  flat  space  com- 
prised between  the  horizontal 
and  raking  cornices  of  a  pedi- 
ment, or  between  a  lintel  and 
the  arch  over  it. 

VOUSSOIR,  any  one  of  the  radial 
stones  composing  an  arch. 


INDEX    OF    ARCHITECTS. 

The  surname  is  in  all  cases  followed  by  a  comma. 

Architects  now  living  (1909)  are  designated  either  by  the  date  of 

birth  and  a  dash    ( — ),  or  by  the  abbreviation  contemp.,  for 

contemporary. 


ABADIE,  Paul  (1812-84)  381 
Adam,  Robert  (1727-92)  341 
Agnolo     (Baglioni),     Baccio    d' 

(1462-1543)  295 
Agnolo    (Baglioni),    Gabriele   d' 

(  1  5th-  1  6th  cent.)  291 
Alan  of  Walsingham  (I4th  cent.) 

228 
Alberti,   Leo   Battista    (1404-73) 

281,  284,  285 
Alessi,    Galeazzo    (1500-72)    303, 

304,  306 
Ammanati,  Bartolommeo    (1511- 

92)  303-  .105 
Anthemius  of  Tralles  (6th  cent.) 

127 
Antonio  da  San  Gallo,  see  SAN 

GALLO 

Antonio,  Master  (i3th  cent.)  264 
Arnolfo  di  Cainbio,   (1232-1303) 

262 
Arras,  Matthew  of   (i4th  cent.  ) 

249 

BACCIO     D'      ACNOI.O      BACI.IOM 

(1462-1543)  295 
Ballu,   Theodore    (1817-85)    379, 


Baltard,  Victor  (1805-74)  379 


Barry,    Sir    Charles    (1789-1850) 

388 
Basevi,      George      (1790-1850  ?) 

366 

Battista,  Juan  (i6th  cent.)  358 
Benard,  £mile  (contemp.)  413 
Benci  di  Cione  (d.  1388)  271 
Benedetto  da   Majano   (1442-97) 

285,  286 
Bernardo  di  Lorenzo,  (i^th  cent.) 

286 
Bernini,      Lorenzo      (1589-1680) 

300,  307.  326 
Berruguete,  Alonso    (1480-1561) 

356.  35«-  359 

Bianchi,   (i6th  cent.)  307 
Bianchi,  (i8th-igth  cent.)  310 
Bondone,   Giotto  di    (1267-1337) 

263.  268 
Borromini,      Francesco       (1599- 

1667)  307,  308,  30*;,  356 
Borset.  (  i6th  cent.  )  34.' 
Bramante  I.a/.xari,  Donato  (1444- 

1514)    293.   -'94.   ->(>5.   -2«>8.   -'99. 

304.  3-'8 
Brandon,    Julm     Raphael     (1817- 


ri'is-iio  (or  Ri//o),  Antonio   (d. 
1498)   288,  289 


(437) 


438 


INDEX    OF   ARCHITECTS. 


Brongniart,       Alex.       Theodore 

(1739-1813)   371 
Brunelleschi,      Filippo     di      Ser 

(1377-1444)  280,  281,  284,  285, 

293 

Bulfinch,  Charles  (1763-1844)  402 
Bullant,  Jean  (1515-78)  323 
Buon,  Bartolommeo  (i6th  cent.) 

288 
Buonarotti,  Michel  Angelo  (Ag- 

nolo)  (1475-1564)  100,293,297, 

298,  299,  300,  303 
Burges,  William  (1827-81)  388 

CALLICRATES,  (5th  cent.  B.C.)  64 
Cambio,  Arnolfo  di    (1232-1303) 

260 

Campbell,  Colin  (d.  1727)  341 
Campello,  (i3th  cent.)  260 
Caprarola,  Cola  da    (i6th  cent.) 

298 

Caprino,  Meo  del   (1430-1501) 
Carrere,  John  M.    (1854 — )   412, 

413,  4M 
Chalgrin,  Jean  F.  T.  (1739-1811) 

370 
Chambers,    Sir    William     (1726- 

96)  341 

Chambiges,  Pierre  (d.  1544)  320 
Chrismas,      Gerard       (i6th-i7th 

cent.)   335 

Christodoulos,  (isth  cent.)  150 
Churrigtiera,  Don  Josef  (d.  1725) 

356 

Civitale,  Mattco  (1435-1501)  286 
Cola  da  Caprarola    (i6th  cent.) 

298 
Collcutt,     Thomas      (contemp.) 

390 

Colnmbe,  Michel  (1430-1512)  316 
Cope,  Charles  F.  (d.  1902)  413 


Cortona,    Domenico    di    (Bocca- 

dor)   (d.  1549)  321 
Cosmati,  The  (i3th  cent.)  269 
Cossutius,  (2d  cent.  B.C.)  69 
Cram,  Ralph  A.  (contemp.)  413 
Cronaca,     Simone     (Porlainolo) 

(1457-1508)  285,  295 

DANCE,  GEORGE   (1695-1768)  341, 

365 

Dance,  George  (1741-1825)  341 
De  Brosse,  Salomon  (1560-1626) 

3-'5 
De    Cotte,    Robert    (i7th    cent.) 

325 

De  Fabris,  (d.  1887)  266 
De  Key,  Lieven  (late  i6th  cent.) 

344 
De  Keyser,  Hendrik  (1565-1621) 

344 
Delia     Porta,     Giacomo     (1541- 

1604)  297,  299,  303,  304 
Delia  Robbia,  Luca  (1400-82)  286 
Delia   Stella,   Paolo   (i6th  cent.) 

347 
De    rOrme,    Philibert    (1515-70) 

323,  324 

Deperthes,  L.  (igth  cent.)  381 
Derrand,   Francois    (i7th   cent.) 

325 

Desiderio  da  Settignano  (1428- 
64)  286 

De  Tessin,  Nicodcmus  (1654- 
1728)  344 

De  Vric-ndt  (or  Floris),  Corne- 
lius (1518-75)  342 

Diego  de  Siloe  (early  i6th  cent.) 

356 
Domenico  di   Cortona    (d.    1549) 

323 
Donatello     (Donato     Nicolo     di 


INDEX   OF   ARCHITECTS. 


439 


Betto  Bardi)    (cir.   1382-1466) 

280 
Dosio,  Giovanni   Antonio   (1533- 

1610)  295 

Duban,  Felix  (1797-1870)  372 
Due,  Louis  Joseph  (1802-79)  372, 

373 
Du  Cerceau,  Jean  Batiste  (1545- 

1602)  324 

EDIXGTOX,    Bishop    (i4th    cent.) 

230 

Egaz,  Enrique  de  (see  below) 
Elmes,  James  (1782-1862)  367 
Enrique  de  Egaz,  (i6th  cent.) 

356 


Era  Sisto  (1310  cent.)  261 
Fuga.     Ferdinando     (1699-1784) 

3io 
Flagg,  Ernest  (contemp.)  414 

GABRIEL,  JACO.I-ES    A.N(;E    (1698- 


Gabriele     d'Angolo,     (Baglione) 

(I5th-i6th  cent.)  291 
Gaddi,  Taddeo  (Mth  cent.)  268 
Gadyer,  Pierre  (  i6th  cent.)  321 
Galilei,    Alessandro    (1691-1737) 

3io 

Gamier,  Charles  (1825-98)  380 
George,  Ernest  (contemp.)  390 
Giacomo  della  Porta,  see  Delia 


Erlach,  Fischer  von   (1650-1723)         Porta 

354.367  Giacomo    di    Pietrasanta,     (i5th 

Erwin  von  Steinbach,  (i3th-i4th  [      cent.)  290 
cent.)  246,  248  (iibbs,    James     (1683-1754)     340, 

365.  397.  40i 

Gibson,  Robert  \V.  (1857—)  407 
Gilbert,  Cass    (1857—)   409,  413, 

414 

Giocondo,  Fra  (d.  cir.  1517)  291 
Giotto   di    Bondone.    (1267-1337) 

263.  268 

Filarete,  Antonio  (1400-68  ?)  287    Giuliano    da    Majano    (1432-90) 
Fischer  von  Erlach,   (1650-1723)        291 

354  Giuliano    da    San    Gallo     (1445- 

Flitcroft,  Henry  (160)7-1769)  341    j      1510)  283,  205,  299 
Floris    (De    Vriendt)    Cornelius  '  Giulio  Romano,  (1492-1546)  293, 

<  '518-75)  34-'  ->()7-  35" 

Fontaine,     Pierre    L.     F.     (1702-  Goodhue  (contemp.)  413 

1853)  Goujon,  Ji-an   (1510-72)  323.  327 

Fontana,   Dotnenico    (1543-1607)  Guimard,  llenri  (contemp.)  392 


FAIX,  PIERRE   (early  i6th  cent.) 

317 

Federighi,  Antonio  (d.  1490)  286 
Ferguson  (contemp.)  413 
Ferstel,  H.  von  (1828-83)  383 
Fiesole,  Mino  da  (  1430-84)  286 


299,  304,  3 


(itimiel,  Pedro  (Kith  cent.)  357 


Fontana,      Giovanni      (i6th-i7tb 

cent.)   30*;  HAI.I.KT,      STKPIIKN      (ETIKXNK) 

Fra  Giocr-ndo  (d.  cir.  1517)  291  (late   iStb  cent.)  402 

Fra  Ristoro  (  13111  cent.)  201  lleiisen.  'riieophil  (1813-90)  369 


440 


INDEX   OF  ARCHITECTS. 


Hastings,  Thomas  (1856 — )  412, 

4U 
Have,  Theodore  (i6th-i7th  cent.) 

335 

Hawksmoor,  (1666-1736)  340 
Hendrik  de  Keyser,   (1565-1621) 

344 

Henri  de  Narbonne,  (i4th  cent.) 
Henry   of   Gmiind,    (i4th    cent.) 

260 

Herrera,  Francisco  (1622-85)  360 
Herrera.     Juan     d'     (1530-1597) 

356.  358,  359 
Ilittorff,   Jacques   Ignace    (1793- 

1867)  372,  380 
Hoban,  Thomas    (?  1760-1817  ?) 

402 
Hiibsch,     Heinrich      (1795-1863) 

383,  384 

Hunt,  Richard  Morris   (1828-95) 
405,  411 


ICTINUS,  (5th  cent.  B.C.)  64,  67 
Inigo  Jones,  (1572-1652)  336,340, 

341 
Isodorus  of  Miletus,  (6th  cent.) 

127 
Ivara    (or   Juvara),    Ferdinando 

(1685-1735)  360,  373 


JACOBUS  OF  MERAN,  (i3th  cent.) 

260 
Jansen,  Bernard  (i6th-i7th  cent.) 

335 
Jefferson,    Thomas     (1743-1826) 

402 

John  of  Padua,  (i6th  cent.)  335 
Jones,  Inigo  (1572-1652)  336,  340, 

341 


Juan  Battista  (i6th  cent.)  358 
Juckher  of  Cologne,  (i5th  cent.) 


KEARSLEY,  DR.  (i8th  cent.)  398 
Kent,  William  (1685-1748)  341 
Keyser,  Hendrik  de  (1565-1621) 

344 

Klenze,  Leo  von  (1784-1864)  368, 
369,  375 

LABROUSTE,  HENRI  P.   F.    (1801- 

75)  372 

Lassus,  Jean  B.  A.  (1807-57)  379 
Latrobe.     Benjamin     H.     (1762- 

1820)  402 
Laurana,  Francesco   (i5th  cent.) 

3i6 

Laurana,  Luciano  (d.  1483)  291 
Le  Breton,  Gilles  (d.  1552)  319 
Le  Due,  Gabriel  (i7th-i8th  cent.) 

329 

Lefuel,  Hector  M.  (1810-80)  380 
Lemercier,    Jacques    (1590-1654) 

3-25-  3-'9 
Lemercier,    Pierre    (i6th    cent.) 

3i8 

Le  Muet  (i7th  cent.)  329 
Le  Nepveti,   Pierre   (Trinqueau) 

(d.  1538)  321 
Lescot,     Pierre     (1515-78)      321, 

322,  327 
Le  Van,  (or  Lcvau)  Louis  (1612- 

1670)  325.  326,  329 
Lieven  de  Key,  (  i6th  cent.)  344 
Ligorio,  Pirro  (  d.  cir.  1586)  297 
Lippi,    Annibale     (2d    half    i6th 

cent.)  297 
Lira.    Valentino    di    (  i6th    cent.) 

351 
Lombardi,  Antonio  (d.  1516)  288 


INDEX   OF  ARCHITECTS. 


441 


Lombard!,  Martino   (i6th  cent.) 

288 

Lombardi,  Moro  (iSth  cent.)  288 
Lombardi,     Pietro     (1433-1515) 

288,290 
Lombardi,  Tullio   (d.  1532)  288, 

298 
Longhena,  Baldassare   (1604-82) 

308,309 
Lorenzo,  Bernardo  di  (i^th  cent.) 

286 

Louis,  Victor  (1731-1800)  370 
Luca  della  Robbia,  (1400-82)  286 
Ludwig,      Friedrich      (i7th-i8th 

cent.)  360 
Lunghi,  Martino  (the  Elder)  (late 

i6th  cent.)  309 


MACHUCA  (i6th  cent.)  359 
Maderna,  Carlo  (1556-1629)  300, 

307.  308,  309 
Maitani,     Lorenzo      (late      I3th 

cent.)  265 
Majano,  Benedetto  da  (1442-97) 

285,286 
Majano,    Giuliano   da    (1432-90) 

290,  291 

Mangin,  L.  (iSth-igth  cent.)  401 
Mansart,    Frangois     (1598-1666) 

329 
Mansart,  Jules  Hardouin   (1647- 

1708)  326,  328,  329 
Marchionne,  (late  i8th  cent.)  310 
Marini,    Giovanni     07th    cent.) 

347 

Martino,  Pietro  di  291 
Matteo  Cicitali,  (1435-1501)  jS6 
Matthew  of  Arras,  (d.  1352)  _'4<) 
McComb,  John   (I7th-i8th  cent.) 

401 


McKim,   Charles    F.    (contemp.) 

412,  413 
Mead,  W.  Rutherford  (contemp.) 

412,413 
Meo    del    Caprino,     (1430-1501) 

290 
Meran,  Jacobus  of   (i3th  cent.) 

260 

Metezeau,  Louis  (1559-1615)  324 
Michel  Angelo  (see  Buonarotti) 
Michelozzi,     Michelozzo     (1397- 

1472)  284,  287 

Mino  da  Fiesole,  (1430-84)  286 
Mnesicles,  (51)1  cent.  n.c. )  66 
Mullen,  A.  B.  (d.  1890)  404 

NARBONNE,  HENRI  DE  (i4th-i5th 

cent.)  254 
Nepveu,    Pierre   le    (Trinqueau) 

(d.  1538)  321 

OHMULLER,    DANIEL    J.     (1791- 

1839)  383 
Olhrich,  J.  M.  (d.  1908)  392 

PALLADIO,  ANDREA  (1518-80)  303, 

304,  326,  336.  358 
Percier.  Charles  (1764-1838)  370 
Perrault,  Claude  (1613-88)  327 
Peruzzi,   Baldassare    (1484-1536) 

273,  296.  299 

Phidias,  (5th  ce;it.  n.r.)  64 
Philibert    de    I'Unne,     (1515-70) 

323 
Pietrasanta,  Giacomo  di  ( 2d  half 

1 5th  cent. )  2<)O.  2<)i 
1'intelli.     I'.accio     (d.    dr.     1492) 

Pisano,  Giovanni   (d.   1320)  265 
Pi>ano.  Niivolo   (  1207-78)   277 
Polaert,  (late  njth  cent.)  391 


442 


INDEX   OF  ARCHITECTS. 


Post,  George  B.  (1838—)  413 
Poyet,  (early  igth  cent.)  371 
Price,  Bruce  (1847-1902)  409 
Pugin,  Augustus  (1762-1832) 

386 

Pugin,  A.  Welby  (1812-52)  386 
Pythius,  (4th  cent.  B.C.)  72 

RAPHAEL     SANZIO      (D'URBINO) 

(1483-1520)  293,  295,  296,  298, 

299 

Remvick,  James  (1818-95)  404 
Revett,  Nicholas  (1721-1804)  364, 

367 
Richardson,  Henry  Hobson  ( 1828- 

86)  405,  407,  408 
Rickman,    Thomas     (1776-1841) 

386 

Ristoro,  Fra  (i3thcent.)  261 
Rizzo,  Antonio  (d.  1498)  288,  289 
Rocco  Lurago,  (i6th  cent.)  307 
Rogers,  Isaiah  (ipth  cent.)  403 
Romano,  Giulio  (1494-1546)  293, 

297 
Rossellini,    Bernardo     (1409-64) 

290 
Ruiz,  Fernando  (i6th  cent.)  359 

SACCONI,  GIUSEPPE  (d.  1905)  382 
Salvi,  Niccola  (1699-1751)  310 
Sammichele,  Michele  (1489-1554) 

298,  303,  305,  337 

San  Gallo,  Antonio  da  (the 
Elder)  (1455-1534)  298 

San  Gallo,  Antonio  da  (the 
Younger)  (1485-1546)  293,296, 

299,  310 

San    Gallo,    Giuliano    da    (1445- 

1516)  283,  295,  299 
Sansovino,  Giacopo  Tatti   (1479- 

1570)  293,  298,  303,  305,  309 


Satyrus,  (4th  cent.  B.C.)  72 
Scamozzi,  Vincenzo   (1552-1616) 

304,  341 
Schinkel,    Friedrich    (1781-1841) 

368,  369,  384 

Schmidt,  (late  i8th  cent.)  367 
Schmidt,      Friedrich      (1825-91) 

386 
Scott,     (General)     (igih    cent.) 

390 
Scott,  Sir  Gilbert  (1811-78)  388, 

389 

Semper,  Ottfried  (1803-79)  384 
Sens,  William  of  (d.  1180)  223 
Servandoni  (1695-1776)  330 
Settingnano,  Desiderio  da  (1428- 

1464)  286 

Shaw,  Norman  (contemp.)  390 
Siccardsburg,     August     S.     von 

(1813-64)  384 
Siloe,  Diego  di  (early  i6th  cent.) 

356 

Smirke,  Robert  (1781-1867)  366 
Smithson,     Robert     (early     I7th 

cent.)   335 
Soane,  Sir  John  (1753-1857)  341, 

366 

Soufflot,  J.  J.  (1709-80)  330 
Steindl,  (contemp.)  386 
Steinbach,  Erwin  von  (i3th-i4th 

cent.)  246,  248 
Stella,   Paolo  della    (i6th  cent.) 

347 
Stern,  Raphael  (early  igth  cent.) 

3'0,  373 

Stewardson,  John  (d.  1896)  ^13 
Street,    George    Edmund    (1824- 

81)  388 
Stuart,     James      (1713-88)      364. 

367 
Stuhlcr,  (ujth  cent.)  368 


INDEX   OF   ARCHITECTS. 


443 


Sullivan,    Louis    H.    (contemp.) 
410 

TALENTI,  FRANCESCO  DI  (d.  1370) 

264,  268 
Talenti,    Simone    di     (late    I4th 

cent.)  271 
Tessin,  Nicodemus  de  (I7th-i8th 

cent.)  344 
Thomson,    Alexander    (1817-75) 

367 

Thornton  (end  of  i8th  cent.)  402 
Thorpe,  John   (early  I7th  cent.) 

335 

Titz,  (igth  cent.)  384 
Torregiano,  (1472-1522)  335 
Towne,   Ithiel    (iSth-igth   cent.) 

401 

Trevigi,  (i6th  cent.)  335 
Train,  £mile  (igth  cent.)  379 

UPJOHN,  RICHARD  (1802-78)  404 
Upjohn,  Richard  M.  (1828-1904) 
406 

VAL  DEL  VIRA  (isth  cent.)  356 
Valentino   di    Lira    (i6th   cent.) 

351 

Van  Aken  (i6th  cent.)  351 
Van  Brugh,  Sir  John  (1666-1726) 

340 
Van  Noort,  William  (i6th  cent.) 

343 
Van  Noye,  Sebastian  ( i6th  cent.) 

343 

Van  Vitelli,  Luigi  (1700-73)  309 
Vasari,    Giorgio    (1512-74)     io_>, 

262,  note 

Viart,  Charles  ( d.  15.17)  .517 
Viel,  (i9th  cent.)  380 


Vignola,    Giacomo     Barozzi     da 

(1507-72)  293.  296,  303,  304,  305 

Vignon,  Barthelemy   (1762-1820) 

370 

Viollet-le-Duc,  Eugene   Emman- 
uel (1814-79)  219,379,  371 
Vischer,  Kaspar  (i6th  cent.)  351 
Vischer,  Peter  (1465  ?-i529)  355 
Visconti,  Louis  T.  J.  (1791-1853) 

380,  386 

Vitoni,  Ventura  (1442-1522)  298 
Vitruvius  Pollio,  (ist  cent.  B.C.) 

57,  7-'-  78 

Von  der  Null  (1812-68)  384 
Von     Kleuze,     Leo     (1784-1864) 
368,  369,  375 

WAGNER,  OTTO  (contemp.)  393 
Wallot,    Jean    (i6th    cent.)    334, 

342 

Wallot,  Paul  (igth  cent.)  385 
Walsingham,     Alan     of      (i4th 

cent.)    228 
Walter,    Thomas    Ustick    (1804- 

87)  403 
Ware,  William  Robert   (1832—) 

405 
Waterhouse,  Alfred  (i9th  cent.) 

3NK,  389 

Webb,  Sir  Aston  (contemp.)  39X) 
White,   Stanford    ( d.    i<)O7)    412, 

413 

Wilkins,  William  ( 1778-1839)  367 
William  of  Sens,  (d.  nSo)  223 
William     of     Wykeham.     (1324- 

1404)    230 

\\'ood,   (  iStli  cent.)   341 
Wren.     Sir     C'liri-topluT     (  1632- 

i/.'.O    337.   33<>.   3-40.   3<>5,   397. 

401 

XiKiti.AND,  (,1800-73)  383 


INDEX. 

THE  buildings  are  arranged  according  to  location.  Those  which 
appear  only  in  the  lists  of  monuments  at  the  ends  of  chapters 
are  omitted.  Numerals  in  parentheses  refer  to  illustrations. 


ABAYAGIRI.    Tope  418 

ABBEVILLE.    St.  Wulfrand  211,  216 

ABOU-SIMBEL  (see  IPSAMBOUL) 

ABI>SEIR.     Stepped  pyramid  9 

ABYDOS.  Columns  12.  Temple 
19,  21.  Tombs  12  (5) 

ADDEH.    Grotto-temple  22 

ADRIANOPLE  151.  Mosque  of  Se- 
lim  151 

Churches  in  157,  267 
Sculptures  58.     Aphesa 
temple  63.    Temple  of  Zeus,  of 
Athena  63  note 

AFRICA,  North.    Arab  works  140 

AGRA  148,  149.  Pearl  Mosque 
148.  Taj  Mahal  148  (87) 

AGRIGENTUM.  Zeus  temple  56 
note,  62  (33) 

AHMEDABAD  147 

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE.  Minster  (Pa- 
latine Chapel)  174.  Palace  of 
Charlemagne  178 

AIZANOI.  Zeus  temple  68.  The- 
atre 71 

AJANTA.  Brahman  chaityas  419; 
vihares  420 

AJMIK  147 

AI.HANO.     Tomb  89 

ALBANY.  All  Saints'  Cathedral 
407.  Capitol  404 


ALBY  Cathedral  169,  188,  208,  214, 

254  ("6) 

ALCALA  DE  HEXARES  (Alcala). 
Archbishop's  Palace  358.  Col- 
lege 357-  Tombs  in  cathedral 
360 

ALCANTARA  108.    Bridge  167 
ALENCON  Cathedral  211.  215 
ALEXANDRIA  TROAS.    Pala?stra  72 
ALGIERS  92,    108,    119.     Mosques 

140 

ALLAHABAD.    Akbar's  Palace  148 
ALTEXBI'RG  Cathedral  246.    Town 

hall  35-' 

AMADA.    Columns  12 
AMBOISE.     Castle  316 
AMIENS  Cathedral   193,  200,  204, 
206,  208,  209,  223,  224,  236,  248 
(125)  ;  west  front  210,  211,  215. 

231 

AMRAVATI.    Tope  418 

A  M  s  r  K  R  D  A  M  .  Hours  e  (Ex- 
change), Hanse  House,  Town 
hall  330 

ANCY  I.E  I'KANC.     Chateau  323 

ANKT.     Chateau  323 

ANGERS.  Cathedral  St.  Maurice 
203.  I  lospiuil  St.  Jean  217 

ANGORA  (  Aucyra  )   1 18 

ANGOI-LKMK.     Catliedral  166 


446 


INDEX. 


ANI  134 

ANNAPOLIS.  Harwood  and  Ham- 
mond Houses  398.  Naval 
Academy  413 

ANTIOCH  116 

ANTIPHELLUS.  Theatre  70. 
Tombs  73 

ANTWERP.  Cathedral  193,  251. 
Town  hall  342,  344 

AQUITANIA.  Churches  166,  170, 
182,  381 

ARANJUEZ.     Palace  360 

AREZZO.  Cathedral  261.  Sta. 
Maria  della  Pieve  159 

ARGOS.    Gates  45 

ARIZONA.    Spanish  churches  400 

ARLES.  St.  Trophime  167.  St. 
Gilles  167 

ARMENIA.  Vaulting  123.  By- 
zantine churches  134 

ASCHAFFENBURG.      Church  247 

ASHEVILLE.    Biltmore  House  411 

ASIA  MINOR  53,  56,  58,  63,  67,  71, 
72,  108,  118,  123 

ASPENDUS.    Theatre  71 

ASSEBONA.    Temple  22 

ASSISI.  Church  of  St.  Francis 
(S.  Francesco)  261,  262,  263 

Assos  56.  Public  square  70. 
Temple  62 

ASSYRIA.  Character  of  monu- 
ments 29 

ASTI.    Church  261 

ASTORGA.    Rood-screen  360 

ATHENS.  Academy  374.  Acro- 
polis 64,  70.  Agora  Gate  69. 
Arch  of  Hadrian  64.  Cathe- 
dral 134.  Choragic  Monument 
of  Lysicrates  67,  367  (30,  38). 
Ercctheum  65  (32,  35,  36).  Mu- 
seum 374.  Odeon  of  Regilla 


(Herodes  Atticus)  69,  71,  72. 
Parthenon  59,  64,  131,  368 
(Frontispiece,  31  d,  34).  Pro- 
pylsea  59,  66,  69,  367  (37). 
Stoa  of  Attalus  68.  Temple  of 
Nike  Apteros  56  note,  65,  66. 
Temple  of  Olympian  Zeus  69 
(39)-  Theatre  of  Dionysus  70, 
71.  Theseum  63.  Tower  of 
Winds  (Clepsydra  of  Cyrrhes- 
tes)  53,  68.  University  374 
ATTICA  51,  56 

AUDENARDE   (see  OuDENARDE) 

AUGSBURG.    Town  hall  352 

AUSTRIA  364 

AUTUN.  City  Gates  108.  Cathe- 
dral 169 

AUVERGNE.  Apsidal  Chapels  in 
207 

AUXERRE.    Cathedral  200,  204 

AVIGNON.  Notre  Dame  des  Doms 
166 

AVILA.  S.  Vincente  188,  253 ; 
tombs  in  360 

AZAY-LE-RIDEAU.     Chateau  321 

BAALBEC     (Heliopolis)    84,    108. 

Circular   Temple   94.     Temple 

of  Sun  92 

BAB-EL-MOLOUK.    Tombs  14 
BABYLON  31 
BAGDAD  145,  146 
BACH.      Viharas,    Great    Vihara 

420 

BAILLUR.  Temples  424 
BAM  BERG.  Church  248 
BARCELONA.  Cathedral  193,  254. 

Sta.  Maria  del  Pi  254 
BARI.     Cathedral  162 
BAKOLLI.     Hindu  temple  424 
BASLE.    Spalenthor  250 


INDEX. 


447 


(Phigalaea).     Temple  of 

Apollo  Epicurius  67 
BATALHA.      Church,    mausoleum 

256 

BATH.    Public  buildings  365 
BAVARIA  350,  368 
BAYEUX.     Cathedral  200,  208 
BAYONNE.    Cathedral  200 
BEAI-GENCY.    Town  hall  322 
BEAUMESNIL.    Chateau  324 
BEAUNE.    Hospital  217 
BEAUVAIS.      Cathedral    193,   203, 

214,  241 ;    chapels    208 ;    choir 

215,  223;  size  209 

BEIT-EL- WALL  Rock-cut  Temple 
22 

BELEM.  Church  256,  360.  Clois- 
ter, tower  360 

BELGIUM  251,  252,  342 

BENARES.  Hindu  temples  423, 
424 

BENI  HASSAN.  Columns  12,  24, 
51.  Specs  Artemidos  22.  Tombs 

H  (6,7) 

BERGAMO.    Town  hall  271 
BERLIN.     Brandenburg  Gate  367. 
Industrial  Museum  368   (207). 
New  Museum  368.     Parliament 
House        ( Reichrathsgebiiude) 
385.     Theatres  309,  384 
BETHLEHEM.    Church  of  the  Na- 
tivity 115 

BHAJA.    Chaityas  419 
BHILSA  424.    Topes  418,  429 
BHUWANESWAR.     Hindu  temples 
422 

BlDAK    146 

BIJAPUR  147.  Tomb  of  Malimud 
148,  153  (86).  Jttmma  Musjid 
148.  Mogul  architecture  149, 
'53 


BILTMORE  HOUSE  4!! 

BINDRABUN.     Ruined  temple  423 

BIRS  NIMROUD.  Stepped  pyramid 
3i 

BLENHEIM  HOUSE  340  (195) 

BLOIS.  Chateau  219,  317,  319,  329 
(180,  181) 

BOHEMIA  346,  347 

BOKHARA  146 

BOLOGNA  157.  Brick  houses  272. 
Campo  Santo  391.  Churches 
282,  298.  Fountains  309.  Frati 
di  S.  Spirito  284.  Local  style 
288.  PALACES  :  —  Bevilacqua 
288;  Communale  (town  hall) 
271  ;  Fava  288.  Renaissance 
churches  282.  298.  S.  Fran- 
cesco 261,  268.  S.  Petronio 
262,  263,  264,  268.  Sta.  Maria 
dei  Servi  268 

Bombay  Presidency  419 

BONN.     Minster  177.     Baptistery 

1/7 

BORABAUOR  (Java).  Great  Tem- 
ple 428 

BORDEAUX.  Cathedral  spires  212. 
Grand  Theatre  370. 

BOSTON  (England).  St.  Bo- 
tolph's  tower  237 

BOSTON  (Mass.,  U.  S.  A.).  Ames 
Building  409.  Custom  House 
403.  Faneuil  Hall  400.  Fine 
Arts  Museum  (old)  407.  Han- 
cock House  399.  Old  State 
House  400.  Old  South  Church 
398.  Public  Library  412,  414. 
State  House  402.  Trinity 
Church  407  (227 ) 

BOURG-EN-BRESSE.  Bron  Church 
216 

BOURGES.       Cathedral     193,    _>oo, 


448 


INDEX. 


202,  204,  208,  209,  253 ;  chapels 
207;  size  209;  portals  211. 
House  of  Jacques  Coeur  217, 
219  (132) 

BOURNAZEL.    Chateau  321 

BOVVDEN  PARK  367 

BOZRAH.    Cathedral  117  (70) 

BRANDENBURG.  St.  Catherine  245, 
249.  St.  Godehard  249 

BREMEN.    Town  hall  250,  352 

BRESCIA.  Sta.  Maria  dei  Miracoli 
297 

BRIEG.    Piastenschloss  351 

BRISTOL.  Cathedral,  piers  180. 
St.  Mary's  Redcliffe  237 

BRUGES.  Ancien  Greffe  342.  Cloth 
hall  352.  Ste.  Anne  343.  Town 
hall  252 

BRUNSWICK.  Burg  Dankwarde- 
rode  178.  Town  hall  250 

BRUSA  150.     (See  list  154) 

BRUSSELS.  Bourse  391.  Cathe- 
dral (Ste.  Gudule)  251.  Palais 
de  Justice  391.  Renaissance 
houses  343  (197).  Town  hall 
252 

BUBASTIS.    Temple  14 

BUDA-PESTH.  Parliament  House, 
Synagogue  386 

BUDDH  GAYA.    Tope  or  stupa  418 

BUFFALO.   Guaranty  Building  410 

BULACH.    Basilica  383 

BURGUNDY.    Cathedrals  in  200 

BURGH  LEY  HOUSE  335  (191) 

BURGOS.  Cathedral  253  ;  chapels 
256  (150) 

BURY.    Chateau  321 

BYZANTIUM  92,  120.  See  CON- 
STANTINOPLE 

CAEN.     Churches    169,    180.     St. 


E*tienne  (Abbaye  aux  Hom- 
mes)  and  Ste.  Trinite  (Abbaye 
aux  Dames)  170;  St.  Pierre 
318.  Hotel  d'licoville  322 

CAHORS.    Cathedral  165 

CASERTA  VECCHIA  162 

CAIRO  136.  Karafah  (Tombs  of 
Khalifs)  137,  138.  Mohamme- 
dan monuments  (list)  153. 
Mosque  of  Amrou  136,  137;  of 
Barkouk ;  of  El  Muayyad  137; 
of  Ibn  Touloun  136;  of  KaYt 
Bey  137  (82)  ;  of  Kalaoun  137; 
of  Sultan  Hassan  137,  138  (81) 

CALIFORNIA.  Spanish  missions 
and  churches  400.  University 
of  413 

CAMBODIA.  Temple  of  Nakhon 
Wat  428 

CAMBRAY.    Cathedral  200 

CAMBRIDGE  (England).  Caius 
College,  Gate  of  Honor  335. 
Fitzwilliam  Museum  366.  King's 
College  Chapel  227,  231,  238. 
Trinity  College  Library  340 

CAMBRIDGE  (Mass.,  U.  S.  A.). 
Craigie  (Longfellow)  House 
399  (224) 

CANTERBURY.  Cathedral  213,  226; 
central  tower  232  ;  chapels  235  ; 
transepts  235  ;  minor  works  239 

CAPRAROLA.     Palace  305 

CAPUA.     Amphitheatre  102 

CARIA  72.    (See  HALICARNASSUS) 

CARINTHIA  346,  347 

CARLTON  HOUSE  367 

CARLSRUHE.  Theatre  384.  Uni- 
versity buildings  384 

CARTER'S  GROVE  398 

CASAMARI.     Abbey  ruins  260 

CASERTA.     Palace  309 


INDEX. 


449 


CASTLE  HOWARD  340 
CERISY-LA-FORET.    Church  180 
CEYLON  417.    Topes  418 
CHAISE-DIEU.    Cloister  216 
CHALONS     (Chalons-sur-Marne). 

Cathedral  208 
CHALVAU.    Chateau  321 
CHAMBORD.      Chateau    320    (182, 

183) 
CHANTILLY.     ("  Petit  Chateau  ") 

323 

CHARLESTON.     St.  Michael's  397 
CHARLOTTESVILLE.     University  of 

Virginia  402 
CHARLTON  HALL  335 
CHARLTON-ON-OXMORE.       Plate 

tracery  (113) 

CHARTRES.     Cathedral   200,   201, 
206 ;  chapels  207 ;  size  209 ;  W. 
front  210;  transept  porches  211 
(131)  ;  spires  212;  capital  from 
(127  c).    Hospital  217 
CHEMNITZ.    Cathedral  253 
CHENONCEAUX.    Chateau  321,  323 
CHIARAVALLE.    Certosa  260,  266 
CHICAGO.      Auditorium    Building 
410,  412.     Columbian   Exposi- 
tion   406,    408,    413.      Fischer, 
Schiller  Buildings  410 
CHICHESTER.       Cathedral     aisles 

236;  spires  233;  vaulting  225 
CHIHUAHUA.    Church  360 
CHILLAMIIARAM.    Dravidian  tem- 
ple,   Great    Hall,    Mantapa    of 
Parvati  426 

CHISWICK.    Villa  336,  337 

CHITTOKK.      Hindu    temples    424. 

Palace  424.    Towers  422  (231) 

CI.ERMONT     (Clermont-Ferrand). 

Cathedral  200,  208,  215.     Notre 

Dame  du  Port  167,  207  (98,  99) 


CLEVELAND  (Ohio,  U.  S.  A.). 
Public  buildings  414 

CLUNY.  Abbey  church  168. 
Houses  217.  Hotel  de  (at 
Paris)  219 

CNOSSUS  43.    Palace  of  Minos  47 

COBLENTZ.  Church  of  St.  Castor 
242 

COIMBRA.    Sta.  Cruz  360 

COLES  HILL  337 

COLOGNE.  Apostles'  Church  176, 
247  (104).  Cathedral  193,  195, 
208,  246,  247,  248;  plan  193, 
247  (146);  spires  245,  246; 
vaulting  244.  Great  St.  Mar- 
tin's 176,  247.  Romanesque 
houses  178.  St.  Mary-in-the- 
Capitol  176 

COMO.  Broletto  (town  hall)  271. 
Campanile  164. 

COMPIKGNE.  Town  hall  257 

COMPOSTELLA.      St.  lagO  l82 

CONJEVERAM.     Dravidian  temple 

426 

CONSTANTINE.  Amphitheatre  92 
CONSTANTINOPLE  120,  126.  By- 
zantine monuments  (list)  134. 
CHURCHES:  of  the  Apostles 
132;  of  Divine  Wisdom  (Hagia 
Sophia,  St.  Sophia)  in,  123, 
124,  127,  131,  133.  150,  151  (72, 
76,  77,  78)  ;  of  Mone  tes  Cho- 
ras  132;  of  St.  Bacchus  127: 
of  St.  John  Studius  (Kmir 
Akhor  mosque)  118;  of  St. 
Sergius  117,  i->7,  128  (74). 
Cisterns  124.  Farly  Christian 
monuments  (list)  119.  FOUN- 
TAINS 152;  of  Ahmet  III.  15.'. 
MOSOUKS  150:  of  Ahmet  II 
( Alimediyeh )  150  (89);  of 


450 


INDEX. 


Kahire  Djami  132;  of  Mehmet 

II.  150,    151    (88)  ;   of   Osman 

III.  (Nouri   Osman)    151 ;    of 
Soliman     (Suleimaniyeh)     151 
(go)  ;     of     Yeni     Djami     150. 
PALACES  153.    Tchinli  Kiosque 
(Imperial  Museum)    153;   sar- 
cophagi in  68.    TOMBS,  tomb  of 
Roxelana  152 

COPENHAGEN.  Christiansburg344. 

Exchange,  Fredericksborg  344 

CORDOVA  141.    Great  Mosque  142, 

M3  (84) 

CORINTH.    Apollo  temple  62 
COUTANCES.  Cathedral  200 ;  chap- 
els 208;  spires  212 
COVENTRY.     St.  Michael's  237 
CRACOW.     Castle  346 ;  chapel  of 

Jagellons  346 
CREMONA.    Town  hall  271 
CRETE  47   (see  CNOSSUS) 
CTESIPHON.    Tak  Kesra  145 
CYPRUS  138 

DAMASCUS.  Mosque  of  El-Walid 
136 

DANDOUR.    Temple  19 

DANTZIC.    Town  hall  352 

DARMSTADT.  Houses  of  artist 
colony  392 

DASHOUR.     Pyramid  9 

DEIR-EL- BAHARI.  Tomb-temple 
of  Hatasu  15,  21 

DEIR-EL-MEDINEH.  Temple  of 
Hathor  19 

DEKKAN  417,  424 

DELHI.  Jaina  temples  422.  Jum- 
ma  Musjid  148.  Mogul  archi- 
tecture 149.  Palace  of  Shah 
Jehan  148.  Pathan  arches,  etc. 
148 


DELOS.      Gates    45.      Portico    of 

Philip  68 

DENDERAH.     Temple   of   Hathor 
17.     Group  of  temples  22,  23, 
24.    Hathoric  columns  24 
DERRI.     Temple  22 
DETROIT.     Majestic  Building  410 
DIEPPE.     Church   of   St.   Jacques 

216 

DIJON.     St.  Michel  318 
DOL.    Cathedral,  east  end  208 
DRESDEN.     Castle,  Georgenfliigel 
350.       Church     of     St.     Mary 
(Marienkirche)      354      (201). 
Theatre  384  (218).    University 
buildings  384.    Zwinger  Palace 
354  (200) 

DRUGELTE.    Circular  church  177 
DUBLIN.     Public  buildings  365 
DURHAM.      Cathedral    179,    180, 
224,  229   (105)  ;   central  tower 
232 ;  Chapel  of  Nine  Altars  235 


EARL'S  BARTON.   Saxon  tower  178 

ECOUEN.     Chateau  323 

EDFOU.     Great  temple  16,   17,  22 

(9,  10,  14).     Peripteral  temple 

22 
EDINBURGH.    High  School,  Royal 

Institution  366.     Monuments  to 

Burns  and  Dugald  Stewart  367. 

University  341 
EGYPT.    Early  Christian  buildings 

1 1 8.    Tombs  10,  II 
EL  DJEM  108 
ELEPHANTINE.     Temple  of  Ame- 

nophis  III.  22 
EL  KAH.     Temple  of  Amenophis 

III.  18 
EI.EUSIS.     Propylaea  70 


INDEX. 


451 


ELLORA.  Chaityas  419.  Kylas 
427 

ELNE.     Cloister  172,  216 

ELY.  Cathedral  224;  choir  vault 
226;  clearstory  229;  interior 
233 ;  Lady  Chapel  238 ;  minor 
works  239;  octagon  228,  238; 
size  236 ;  towers  232 

EPHESUS.  Temple  of  Artemis 
(Artemisium)  67;  Ionic  order 
53.  Palaestra  72 

EPIDAURUS.    Theatre  71 

ERECH  31 

ESCURIAL  358,  359,  360 

ESNEH.  Hathoric  columns  24. 
Temple  22,  108 

ESSEN.    Nun's  choir  175 

ESSLINGEN.     Church  spire  245 

ETCHMIADZIN.  Byzantine  build- 
ings 134 

ETRURIA.  Tombs  88.  Temples 
89 

EVREUX.    Cathedral  200 

EWERBY.    Church  237 

EXETER.     Cathedral  226  (134) 

EZRA.    Church  of  St.  George  117 

FERAIG.    Rock-cut  temple  22 

FERRARA.  Cathedral  266,  308,  311. 
Churches  282,  298.  Palaces 
Scrofa,  Roverella  288 

FIROUZABAD.  Sassanian  buildings 
144 

FLORENCE.  Bargello  271.  Rnp- 
tistery  162.  Campanile  164. 
268,  270  (1528,  159).  Cathe- 
dral ( Duomo,  Sta.  Maria  del 
Fiore)  262,  263,  264,  268;  dome 
279  (152,  164,  165);  facade 
266;  marble  incrustations  268; 
nave  262  (148).  CHURCHKS: — 


of  Santa  Croce  263 ;  Paz/i 
chapel  in  same  281  ;  pulpit  in 
286;  Marsupini  tomb  in  286; 
of  San  Lorenzo,  and  Old  Sac- 
risty of  same  281  ;  of  San 
Michele  (Or  San  Michele) 
268;  of  San  Miniato  115,  162; 
of  Sta.  Maria  Novella  261,  263; 
facade  of  same  281  ;  fountain 
in  sacristy  of  same  286 ;  of  San 
Spirito  281  (166).  Loggia  dei 
Lanzi  271.  Loggia  di  San 
Paolo  285.  Minor  works  286. 
Ospedale  degli  Innocenti  285. 
PALACES:  —  Bartolini,  Gondi, 
Guadagni,  Larclerel,  Pandoltini, 
all  295;  Pitti  284,  305.  325; 
Riccardi  284.  285,  286,  295 
(167)  ;  Rucellai  285,  287;  Ser- 
ristori  295 ;  Strozzi  285,  295 
(168);  Palazzo  Vecchio  271 
(160) 

FLUSHING.    Town  hall  (hotel  de 
ville)  342 

FONTAINEBLEAU.      Palace  318.  324 

FONTEVRAULT.    Abbey  church  166 
FONTFROIDE.    Cloister  216 
FONTHILL  ABBEY  386  note 
FOSSANOVA.     Abbey  ruins  260 
FRANCE.        Romanesque      monu- 
ments (list)  173;  Gothic  monu- 
ments   (list)    219,   220   Renais- 
sance   monuments    (list)    332, 

333 

FRANKFORT.     Salt  House  354 
FREIBURG.      Cathedral    244.    245. 

248 ;  spire  245 
FREIBURG  IM  FR/.GFIIIRCK.    Golden 

Portal  -'.47 

FRIT/LAR.    Church  248 
FUUIA.     Monastery  175,  1/7 


452 


INDEX. 


FURNESS.    Abbey,  pointed  arches 
223 

FUTTEHPORE    SlKHRI.      MoSQUC   of 

Akbar,  etc.  148 


GANDHARA.  Buddhist  monaster- 
ies 419 

GAILLON.    Chateau  316 

GELNHAUSEN.  Abbey  church  247. 
Castle  ruins  178 

GENOA.  Campo  Santo  391.  Ca- 
thedral, west  front  266.  Log- 
gia dei  Banchi  306.  PALACES  : 
— Balbi,  Brignole,  Cambiasi, 
Doria-Tursi  (Municipio),  Du- 
razzo  (Reale),  Guistiniani, 
Lercari,  Pallavicini,  Sauli,  Uni- 
versity, all  306,  307.  Sta.  Ma- 
ria di  Carignano  304 

GERASA  108 

GERMANY.  Mediaeval  174.  Ro- 
manesque monuments  (list) 
182.  Gothic  monuments  (list) 
256.  Renaissance  monuments 
(list)  361 

GERNRODE.     Romanesque   church 

175 

GERONA.    Cathedral  188,  259 
GHENT  (Gand).    Cloth  hall  252 
GHEKF  HOSSEIN.     Rock-cut  tem- 
ple 22 
GHERTASHI  (Kardassy).   Temple 

22 

GHIZEH.  Pyramids  4;  Pyramid 
of  Cheops  7  (i,  2)  ;  of  Cheph- 
ren  8;  of  Mycerinus  8,  9; 
Sphinx,  Sphinx  temple  10  (3, 

4) 

GIRNAR.  Jaina  temples,  Temple 
of  Neminatha  421 


GLASGOW.  Churches  in  Greek 
style  367 

GLOUCESTER.  Cathedral  180,  224, 
225,  226 ;  central  tower  232 ; 
cloister  227;  east  window  231 ; 
Lady  Chapel  238 

GOSLAR.     Kaiserburg  178 

GOURNAH.  Columns  24.  Temple 
21 

GRAN.     Cruciform  chapel  346 

GRANADA  141.  Alhambra  142,  143, 
144,  359  (83,  85).  Cathedral 
356,  358 ;  tombs  in  same  360. 
Palace  of  Charles  V.  359  (204) 

GRANGE  HOUSE  367 

GREAT  BRITAIN.  Norman  monu- 
ments (list)  183.  Gothic 
monuments  (list  )  240.  Re- 
naissance monuments  345 

GUADALAJARA.    Infantada  357 

GUJERAT  146 

GWALIOR.  Jaina  temples  422. 
Palace  424.  Teli-ka-mandir 
424.  Tombs  424 


HADDON  HALL  334 

HAGUE,  THE.    Town  hall  343 

HALBERSTADT.        Cathedral     249. 

Town  hall  250 
HALICARNASSUS.    Ionic  order  53. 

Mausoleum  4,  56  note,  72  (41) 
HAMELSCHENBURG.     Castle 

(Schlos)  348,  352  (198 
HAMONCONDAH.    Temple  425 
HAMPTON  COURT  334,  339 
HARDWICKE  HALL  335 
HARTFORD    (Conn.,    U.    S.    A.). 

Churches    401.      State    Capitol 

406 
HATFIEI.D  HOUSE  335 


INDEX. 


453 


HAURAN.  Roman  works  in  the 
92.  Domestic  buildings  117 

HECKLINGEN.    Church  175 

HEIDELBERG.  Castle  351  (199). 
Ritter  House  354 

HEILSBERG.    Castle  250. 

HELDBURG.    Castle  350 

HENGREAVE  HALL  334 

HERCULANUM  87.  Amphithea- 
tre 92.  Houses  106.  Theatre 
(61).  Wall  paintings  87 

HEREFORD.  Cathedral  180,  224, 
236 

HIERAPOLIS.  Early  Christian 
buildings  118 

HILDESHEIM  175.  Kaiserhaus 
354.  Renaissance  houses  353. 
St.  Godehard  175.  Town  hall 
250.  Wedekindsches  Haus  354 

HOLLAND  HOUSE  335 

HOWARD  CASTLE  340 

HcLLABio.  Temples  424;  double 
temple  424,  425  (234)  Kait 
Iswara  424 

ICONICM  (Konieh).    Ruins  149 
IFFLEY.    Church  181  (107) 
IONA.     Abbey  church  181 
INDIA    146-149.      Moslem   monu- 
ments   (list)    154.     Non-Mos- 
lem monuments  (list)  430 
INDIANAPOLIS.     Public  buildings 

414 
INNSBRUCK.        Schloss      Ambras 

.347 

IPSAMBOUL  (Abou-simbel).  Grot- 
to temples  21   ( 13) 
IRELAND.    Celtic  towers  178 
ISPAHAN.        Mcidan      (Meidan- 
Shah)   145.     Mesjid  Shah,  Ba- 
zaar, Medress  146 


ISSOIRE.  Church  of  St.  Paul  167, 
207 

ITALY.  Early  Christian  monu- 
ments (list)  118-119.  Roman- 
esque monuments  (list)  172- 
173.  Gothic  monuments  (list) 
273-274.  Renaissance  monu- 
ments (list)  311-313 

JAEN.    Cathedral  356,  358 

JAMALGIRI.  Buddhist  monastery 
419 

JAPAN  429 

JAUNPORE  146 

JEDBURGH.    Abbey  181 

JERUSALEM.  Castle  of  Antonia 
40.  Church  of  the  Ascension 
115.  Early  Christian  churches 
in.  El  Aksah  136.  Golden 
Gate  40.  Herod's  temple  40, 
83.  Mosque  of  Omar  (Dome 
of  the  Rock,  Kubbet-es-Sakh- 
rah)  116,  136.  Octagonal 
church  on  temple  site  116. 
Solomon's  temple  40.  Tomb 
of  Absalom  40;  of  the  Kings 
39 ;  of  Zechariah  39.  Wall  of 
Lamentations  40.  Zerubbabel's 
temple  41 

KAIROUAN  (Cyrene).  Mosques 
140 

KALABSHE.  Columns  11.  Tem- 
ple 22 

KALB  LOUZEH.    Church  116  (69) 

KALBURGAH  146 

KANARUK.     Hindu  temples  422 

KANTONNUGGUR.      Hindu   temple 

4-M 

KARDASSY  (Ghertashi).  Temple 
22,  108 


454 


INDEX. 


KARLI.    Chaityas  419 

KARLSTEIN.    Castle  280 

KARNAK  19,  50.  Ancient  temple 
13.  Great  Temple  and  Hypo- 
style  Hall  xxiii.,  13,  17,  18,  19, 
20,  23,  24,  36  (n,  12).  Polyg- 
onal columns  12,  13.  Temple 
of  Khonsu  16,  20 

KASCHAU.     Cathedral  250 

KASR.    Mound  31 

KEDDLESTONE  HALL  341 

KELAT  SEMAN.  Church  of  St. 
Simeon  Stylites,  small  double 
church  117 

KELSO.    Abbey  181 

KHAJURAHO.  Jaina  temples  422. 
Kandarya  Mahadeo  423 

KHORSABAD.  Palace  of  Sargon 
31.  City  Gate  32  (19) 

KIRKSTALL.  Abbey,  pointed  arches 
223 

KONIGSBERG.    Church  249 

KOYUNJIK.  Palaces  of  Assur- 
bani-pal  and  Sennacherib  31 

KUTTENBERG.  Church  of  St.  Bar- 
bara 244,  245 


LAACH.    Abbey  176 

LABYRINTH  of  Moeris  (Fayoum) 

26 

LAMBESSA  108 
LA  MUETTE.    Chateau  321 
LANDSHUT.      Residenz   350.      St. 

Martin's  245,  249 
LANGRES.     Cathedral  169 
LAOX.     Cathedral  200,  208,  209, 

21 1  ;    grotesques    213;    porches 

2t  i  ;  towers  212 
LAVAL.     Cathedral   (La  Trinitc) 

203 


LE  MANS.     Cathedral   200,   203 

208,  209  (123)  ;  tomb  in  316 
LEON.    Cathedral  193,  254.    Pan- 

teon  of  S.  Isidore  181,  182 
LE  PUY  (Puy-en-Velay).    Abbey 

(now  cathedral)    207;  cloister 

216 

LEIPZIG.    Fiirstenhaus  354 
LEMGO.    Town  hall  352 
LEYDEN.    Town  hall  344 
LICHFIELD.      Cathedral   226,   229, 

223     (140);    spire    233;    west 

front  239  (139) 
LIEGE.     Archbishop's  palace  342. 

Church  of  St.  Jacques  251 
LIMBURG-ON-THE-HARDT.    Church 

175 
LIMBURG-ON-LAHN.   Cathedral  of 

St.  George  244  (144).     Abbey 

church  177 
LIMOGES.    Cathedral  200,  208,  214, 

215 

LINCOLN.  Cathedral  224,  226,  229, 
230,  236;  chapter  house  228; 
central  tower  232 ;  interior  233  ; 
west  front  231 

LISBON.    Sta.  Cruz  near  360 

LISIEUX.    Cathedral  200 

LIVERPOOL.  St.  George's  Hall  367 
(206) 

LOIRE  VALLEY.  Churches,  vault- 
ing 167.  (For  chateaux  of  this 
valley  see  Azay-le-Rideau, 
Blois,  Chambord,  Chenon- 
ceaux) 

LOMISARUY.  Romanesque  monu- 
ments 157-160 

LONDON.  Albert  Memorial  388. 
Albert  Memorial  Hall  300. 
Bank  of  England  341,  365. 
British  Museum  366  (205)  ; 


INDEX. 


455 


Elgin  marbles  in  58;  mauso- 
leum fragments  in  72.  Cathe- 
dral of  St.  Paul  337-339  (*92» 
193).  CHURCHES:  —  Bow 
Church  339;  St.  George's, 
Bloomsbury  340;  St.  Martin's- 
in-the-Fields  340  (196);  St. 
Mary's,  Woolnoth  340;  St. 
Pancras's  367;  St.  Paul's,  Co- 
vent  Garden  337;  St.  Ste- 
phen's, Walbrook  339;  St.  Ste- 
phen's Chapel,  Westminster 
338 ;  Temple  Church  223 ; 
Westminster  Abbey  224,  226, 
235»  239  (142)  ;  chapter  house 
228;  Henry  VII. 's  chapel  195, 
227,  231,  233  (141).  Green- 
wich Hospital  340.  Mansion 
House  341,  365.  Middle  Tem- 
ple Hall  238.  Natural  History 
Museum  389  (222).  New  Law 
Courts  389.  Newgate  Prison 
341.  Parliament  Houses  238, 
388  (220).  Royal  Exchange 
365.  Somerset  House  337,  340, 
341.  South  Kensington  Mu- 
seum, new  building  390.  West- 
minster Abbey  (see  above). 
Westminster  Hall  237.  White- 
hall Palace  336;  Banqueting 
Hall  of  same  337  (192) 

LONGLEAT  HOUSE  335 

Lot'TH.    Church  237 

LOUVAIN.  Cathedral  251,  252. 
Town  hall  252  (149) 

LUBECK.  Cathedral  of  St.  Mary 
246,  247,  249.  City  Gates  250. 
St.  Catherine's  249.  Town  hall 
250 

LUCCA.  Arcadcd  church  facades 
115.  Campanile  270.  Cathe- 


dral (S.  Martino)  161,  262  263, 
265  (154)  ;  tempietto  in  same 
286;  tomb  of  P.  di  Noceto  in 
same  266  (169).  Minor  works 
286,  287.  Palazzo  Pretorio,  Pal. 
Bernardini  287.  S.  Frediano, 
S.  Michele  161 

LUPIANA.     Monastery  358 

LUXOR  19,  50.  Temple  19,  20. 
Osirid  piers  24 

Luz.    Church  360 

LYCIA.    Tombs  37,  38,  39,  53 

MADRID.  Escurial  358,  359,  360. 
First  palace  358.  New  palace 
359 

MADRID  (Boulogne).  Chateau 
321 

MADURA.  Choultrie  of  Tirumalla 
Nayak  426.  Great  Hall  427. 
Great  Temple,  corridors  425, 
426.  Palace  427 

MAFRA.    Palace  360 

MAGDEBURG.  Cathedral  193,  246, 
248 

MAHAVELLIPORE.    Raths  427 

MAHRISCH-TRUBAU.  Castle  por- 
tal 346 

MAISONS.    Chateau  329 

MALAGA.  Alcazar  142,  143.  Ca- 
thedral 356 

MALINES  (Mechlin).  Cathedral 
of  €>t.  Rombaut  251.  Cloth  hall 
252.  Hotel  du  Saumon  342 

MANCHESTER.  Cathedral  236.  As- 
size Courts  388  (221) 

MANIKYALA.    Tope  418 

MANRF.SA.   Collegiate  Church  254 

MANTINKA.    Theatre  70 

MANTUA.  Campanile  270.  Church 
of  S.  Andrea  281.  Early  Re- 


456 


INDEX. 


naissance  palaces  288.    Palazzo 
del  Te  293 
MARBURG.     St.  Elizabeth  245,  246 

(i45) 

MARCH.    Church  ceiling  238 
MARIENBURG.     Castle,  Great  Hall 

256 

MARIENWERDER.    Castle  250 
MARSEILLES.     Chapel  of  St.  La- 
zare  316.     Fountain  of  Long- 
champs  381  (216) 
MARYLAND.    Manor  houses, 

churches  398 
MASHITA.      Palace   of   Chosroes 

MS 

MAULBRONN.    Monastery  178 

MAYENCE.    Cathedral  176 

MEAUX.    Cathedral  214 

MECCA.    Kaabah  136 

MEDINA.    Mosque  136 

MEDINA  DE  Rio  SECO.  Rood- 
screen  360 

MEDINET  ABOU.  Osirid  piers  24 
(15).  Pavilion  of  Rameses  III. 
26.  Peripteral  temple  22.  Tomb- 
temple  of  Rameses  III.  15,  19, 
21 

MEIDOUM.  Stepped  pyramid  9. 
Temple  II 

MEISSEN.    Albrechtsburg  250 

MERGE.    Pyramids  9 

MERV  146 

MESOPOTAMIA.  Building  mate- 
rials 28 

MESSINA.  Cathedral  ceiling  162. 
Fountains  309 

METZ.    Cathedral  249 

MIDDELBURG.     Town  hall  252 

MILAN  157.  Arcade  391.  Cathe- 
dral 248,  260,  262,  265,  267,  269. 
Domical  churches  283.  Ospe- 


dale  Maggiorc  287,  293.  S. 
Ambrogio  158,  159,  163  (91). 
San  Eustorgio,  Portinari 
Chapel  in,  287.  S.  Gottardo, 
campanile  of  163.  S.  Lorenzo 
127  note,  133.  Sta.  Maria  delle 
Grazie  283,  293.  S.  Satiro  164; 
sacristy  of  293 

MILETUS.  Temple  of  Apollo 
Didymaeus  53,  67  (28) 

MINDEN.    Cathedral  249 

MODENA  164 

MCERIS.    Labyrinth  26 

MOISSAC.    Cloister  172,  216 

MOLFETTA   l62 

MONREALE.     Churches,  cathedral, 

cloisters  162 
MONS.      Cathedral,    St.    Wandru 

251,  252 
MONTEPULCIANO.     Church  of   S. 

Biagio  298,  310 

MONTMAJOUR.    Cloister  172,  216 
MONT  ST.   MICHEL.     Abbey   169, 

170,     216;     cloister     of    same 

216 

MORET.     House  of  Francis  I.  322 
Moscow.    The  Kremlin  374 
MOSUL  33,  146 
MOUNT     ABU.       Jaina     temples, 

Temple    of   Vimalah    Sah   420 

(232) 

MOUNT  ATHOS.     Monastery  134 
MUGHEIR.      Temple    of    Sin    or 

Hurki  30 

MUJELIBEH.     Mound  31 
MuKTESWARA.       Hindu     temples 

424 

MiJLHAUSEN.     Town  hall  352 
MUNICH  368,  374.   Auekirche  383. 

Basilica    383.      Cathedral    247. 

Fraucnkirche  245.     Glyptothek 


INDEX. 


457 


369.    Ludwigskirche  383.    Pro- 
pylaea  369  (208).    Ruhmeshalle 
368.     St.  Michael's  352 
MONSTER.     Church   248.     Town 
hall  250 

MUNZENBERG.      Castle  rtlillS   178 

MYCEN.E  47.  Fortifications  44 
(23).  Lion  Gate  45,  46  (22). 
Tholos  of  Atreus  45,  46,  148 
(24,  25).  Tombs  4 

MYLASSA.    Tomb  72. 

MYRA.    Theatre  70.    Tombs  73 

MYSORE  424 


NAKHON  WAT  413 

NAKSH-I-ROUSTAM  (Persepolis) 
36.  Tomb  of  Darius  37 

NANCY.    Ducal  Palace  219,  317 

NANKIN.    Porcelain  tower  428 

NAPLES.  Arcade  391.  Arch  of 
Alphonso  291.  Church  of 
Gesii  Nuovo  308;  of  S.  Fran- 
cesco di  Paolo  310,  373;  of  S. 
Lorenzo  268;  of  S.  Severo 
(178).  Minor  works  286.  Pa- 
lazzo Cuomo,  Pal.  Gravina, 
Porta  Capuana  291.  Royal 
Museum  509.  Royal  Palace 
310.  Theatre  San  Carlo  310, 
373.  Towers  310,  31 1 

NARBONNE.  Cathedral  200,  208, 
214,  215 

NASSICK.    Chaityas  419 

NAUKRATIS  43 

NAL'MBI:R<;.    Church  246,  248 

NETHERLANDS  250.  Gothic  monu- 
ments (list)  257 

NEUWEILER.  Church  of  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Paul  248 

NEVEKS.    St.  Ktienne  167 


NEWCASTLE.    St.  Nicholas  237 

NEW  HAVEN  (Conn.,  U.  S.  A.). 
Churches  401 

NEW  MEXICO.  Spanish  churches 
400 

NEWPORT  (R.  I.,  U.  S.  A.).  Town 
hall  400.  Trinity  Church  398 

NEW  YORK  405.  American  Surety 
Building,  Broadway  Chambers 
409.  Carnegie  house  411.  Ca- 
sino theatre  412.  Cathedral  of 
St.  Patrick  404.  Century  Club 

412.  City   College   413.     City 
Hall  401.    Columbia  University 

413.  Custom  House,  Old  403 
(226)  ;  New  414.  Grace  Church 
404.     Law  Library  of  Colum- 
bia  University   413.     Madison 
Square    Garden    412.      Metro- 
politan     Club     412.        Metro- 
politan    Life      Building     409. 
Phipps  house  411.     Post  Office 
404.     Public  Library  413,  414. 
Schwab     house    411.       Singer 
Building    409.      St.     Patrick's 
Cathedral     404.       St.      Paul's 
Church     398.        Sub-Treasury 
403.      Times    Building    (229). 
Trinity   Church  404.     Univer- 
sity  Club   412.      University   of 
New    York    413.       Vanderbilt 
house  411.    West  Street  Build- 
ing 409 

NlCOMEDIA    ISO 

NiMES    108.      Amphitheatre    92. 

Maison    Carree   93.      Pont    du 

Gard  107 
NiMRofi).       Palaces     of    Assur- 

nazir-pal,    Esarhaddon    and 

Shalmaneser  31,  32 
NINEVEH  31 


458 


INDEX. 


NIPPUR  (Niffer).  Ruins  29,  31. 
Mycenaean  house  44  note 

NORMANDY  169,  171,  212.  Ro- 
manesque clearstories  167.  Ro- 
manesque churches  179,  180. 
Cathedrals  of  200 

NORTH  GERMANY.  Brick  churches 
249 

NORTH  WOBURN.  Rum  ford 
House  399 

NORWICH.  Cathedral  179,  180, 
224,  227.  St.  Stephen's  237, 
238 

NOYON.  Cathedral  200,  203,  204, 
206,  208,  209,  251 

NUBIA.  Early  Christian  build- 
ings 118 

NUREMBERG  243.  Frauenkirche, 
St.  Lorenz  and  St.  Sebald 
churches  250.  Funk,  Hirsch- 
vogel  and  Peller  houses  354. 
Renaissance  houses  353.  Shrine 
of  St.  Sebald  355.  Town 
hall  352 

OLYMPIA.     Altis,  Echo  Hall  70. 

Heraion    51,    63.      Philippeion 

56.     Sculptures  58.     Temple  of 

Zeus  63 
OPPENHEIM.     St.  Catherine's  244, 

247,  249 

ORANGE  108.  •  Theatre  101 
ORCHOMENOS.       Beehive     tomb, 

ceiling  47 
ORISSA.    Hindu  temples,  422,  423, 

424 
ORLEANS.      Houses    322.     Town 

hall  (hotel  de  ville)  317 
ORLEANSVILLE  108 
ORVIETO.   Cathedral  262,  264,  265 ; 

facade  265 


OSNABRUCK.     Church  248 
OTTMARSHEIM.     Church  175 

OUDENARDE.      Town   hall  2$2 

OUDEYPORE.     Hindu  temples,  pal- 
aces 424 

OURSCAMP.  Hospital  217 
OXFORD.  All  Souls  College  340. 
Cathedral  (Christ  Church)  224, 
227.  Christ  Church  Hall  237, 
238.  Divinity  School  227.  Mer- 
ton  College  Chapel  238.  New 
Museum  388.  Radcliffe  Li- 
brary 340.  Sheldonian  Thea- 
tre 340.  Town  hall  390 


PADERBORN.    Town  hall  352 

PADUA.  Arena  chapel  263.  Cam- 
panile 164.  Palazzo  del  Con- 
siglio  291 

P.-ESTUM.  Basilica  70.  Temples 
62 

PAILLY.    Chateau  323 

PALERMO.  Cathedral  162,  163, 
308.  Churches  of  Eremitani, 
La  Mortorana  162.  La  Ziza, 
la  Cuba  144 

PALMYRA  84,  108.  Temple  of  the 
Sun  92.  Ceiling  panels  (50  a) 

PARASNATHA.    Jaina  temples  422 

PARIS.  Arch  of  Triumph  of  the 
Carrousel  370,  371 ;  of  1'Etoile 
3?o,  371  (209).  Bourse  371. 
Castel  Beranger  392.  Cathedral 
(Notre  Dame)  193,  200,  201, 
203,  204,  205,  253  (119,  120, 
127)  ;  capital  from  (129  b)  ; 
chapels  207,  208;  early  carving 
(117);  grotesques  213;  rose 
windows  206,  215;  size  209, 
236;  west  front  210,  231  (127). 


INDEX. 


459 


CHURCHES  : — Chapel  and  Dome 
of  the  Invalides  328  (187)  ; 
Madeleine  370,  371  (210)  ;  Pan- 
theon 330,  370  (189,  190); 
Sacre  Coeur  at  Montmartre 
381 ;  Sainte  Chapelle  188,  206, 
228  (109,  124);  capital  from 
same  (129  a)  ;  Sorbonne  325; 
St.  Augustin  379 ;  Ste.  Clothilde 
379,  383 ;  St.  Iitienne  du  Mont, 
St.  Eustache  318;  St.  Jean  de 
Belleville  379;  St.  Merri,  St. 
Severin  216;  St.  Paul-St.  Louis 
325 ;  St.  Roch  325 ;  St.  Sulpice 
325,  370  (188)  ;  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  372;  Val-de-Grace  329. 
College  Chaptal  378.  Colon- 
nades of  Garde-Meuble  370, 
375.  Column  of  July  (Col- 
onne  de  Juillet)  373.  Corps 
Legislatif  (Palais  Bourbon) 
371.  £cole  des  Beaux- Arts  364, 
378,  405;  door  of  same  (211)  ; 
library  372  ;  Ecole  de  Medecine, 
new  buildings  372.  Exhibitions 
382;  of  1900  382,  392,  393. 
Fountains  Cuvier,  Moliere,  St. 
Michel  380.  Halles  Centrales 
378.  H6tel-de-Ville  (town 
hall)  321;  new  buildings  381. 
HOTELS  : — C arnavalet  (de 
Ligeris)  322,  329;  de  Cluny 
219;  des  Invalides  328;  Lam- 
bert 329.  House  of  Francis  I. 
(Maison  Francois  I.)  322. 
Library  of  Beaux-Arts  372; 
of  Ste.  Genevieve  372.  Louvre 
(see  PALACES).  Museum 
(Musee)  Gallicra  (217). 
Opera  House  (Nouvel  Optra) 
380  (215).  I'ALACES: — Palai* 


Bourbon  (Corps  Legislatif) 
371;  Pal.  de  I'lndustrie  380; 
palace  and  baths  of  Julian 
108;  Pal.  de  Justice  372;  Lou- 
vre and  Tuileries  219,  323, 
324,  325,  326,  327,  370,  379, 
380  (184,  213,  214)  ;  Luxem- 
burg 325  (185);  Pal.  Royal 

329,  370.    Pavilion  Bleu  at  Ex- 
position of  1900  392.     PLACES  : 
(Squares)  : — de    la    Concorde 

330,  331 ;    Royale     (now    des 
Vosges)    324;    Vendome    328. 
Railway  stations  (de  1'Est,  du 
Nord,    d'Orleans)    380.      Sor- 
bonne   church   325 ;    new    aca- 
demic buildings  382 

PATRINGTON.    Church  237 
PAULINZELLE.        Romanesque 

church  175 
PAVIA  157.    Certosa  260,  266,  267, 

268,     283,     288      (157,     158). 

Church  of  S.  Michele  158,  159 

(92).    Domical  churches  283 
PEKING.     Summer  pavilion  429. 

Temple  of  Great  Dragon  428. 
PERGAMON    (Pergamus).      Altar 

of  Eumenes  II.  68.     Christian 

buildings  1 18. 
PERIGUEUX.     St.  Front   166   (94, 

97) 

PEROOV.    Temple  426 

PERSEPOLIS  35,  145.  Columns  36, 
37  (21).  Hall  of  Xerxes  36, 
37.  Palaces  70 

PERSIA  123.  Moslem  buildings 
145,  156  (list  154).  Sassauian 
buildings  144,  145  (see  also 
PERSEPOLIS) 

PERTGIA.  Oratory  of  S.  Bernar- 
dino 284.  Town  hall  (Pal. 


460 


INDEX. 


Communale  274.  Roman  gates 
88 

PETERBOROUGH.  Cathedral  180, 
224,  225 ;  retro-choir  227 ;  west 
front  231,  232 

PETRA.    Necropolis  108 

PHIGAL.EA  (Bassae).  Gate  45. 
Sculptures  58.  Temple  of 
Apollo  Epicurus  67 

PHILADEPHIA.  Centennial  Ex- 
hibition 405.  Christ  Church 
397  (223).  Girard  College 
403.  Independence  Hall  400. 
Marine  Exchange,  Mint,  403. 
Municipal  buildings  404 

PHILAE  108.  Great  Temple  (of 
Isis),  peripteral  temple  22 

PIACENZA  157.  Campanile  163 
(93).  Cathedral  159  (93). 
Town  hall  271 

PIASTENSCHLOSS  (at  Brieg)  351 

PIENZA  286.  Pal.  Piccolomini, 
etc.  287 

PIERREFONDS.    Chateau  219,  371 

PIRAEUS.    Arsenal  70 

PISA.  Baptistery  161  (94).  Ca- 
thedral (Duomo)  161  (94,95). 
Churches  115,  266;  minor 
works  of  early  Renaissance  in 
same  277,  286.  Leaning  Tower 
161,  164  (94).  Sta.  Maria  della 
Spina  269 

PISTOIA.  Campanile  270. 
Churches  161.  Podesta,  Pal. 
Communale  271.  Sta.  Maria 
dell'  Umilta  298 

PITTSBURGH.  Carnegie  Building 
409.  Carnegie  Library  411. 
County  buildings  407 

PLAGNITZ.    Castle  351 

PLASSENBURG.    Castle  351 


POITIERS.    Cathedral  200,  203,  208 
POLA.    Amphitheatre  91,  102 
POMPEII.      Amphitheatre    92. 
Baths  86.    Houses  73,  106,  107. 
House  of  Pansa  (65).     Thea- 
tre   101.      Tombs    104.      Wall 
paintings  87 

PONPOSA.    Campanile  163 
PONT  DU  CARD.    Bridge  107 
PORTSMOUTH  (N.  H.,  U.  S.  A.). 
Sherburne     (Warner)     House 

399 

PORTUGAL  360.  Gothic  monu- 
ments (list)  258.  Renaissance 
monuments  (list)  361 

POTSDAM.  St.  Nicholas  Church 
368 

PRAGUE.  Belvedere  347.  Cathe- 
dral 244,  246,  247,  249.  Palace 
on  Hradschin,  Schloss  Stern, 
Waldstein  palace  347 

PRATO.  Churches  161,  298.  Ma- 
donna delle  Carceri  283 

PRENTZLAU.    Church  249 

PRIEUE.  Ionic  Order  53 ;  Pro- 
pylaea  70 

PROVENCE  165 

PROVINS.    Houses  217 

PURI.  Temples  422.  Temple  of 
Jugganat  423 

PURUDKUL.    Rock-cut  raths  427 

PUY-EN-VELAY  (see  LE  PUY) 


RAGLAN.    Castle  334 

RAMESSEUM  (Thebes).  Tomb- 
temple  of  Rameses  II.  15,  19, 
21,  23,  24  (8) 

RAMISSERAM.  Temple,  corridors 
425,  426 

RATISBON     (Regensburg).       Ca- 


INDEX. 


461 


thedral  244,  246,  249.  Town 
hall  250.  Walhalla368 
RAVENNA  114.  Baptistery  of  St. 
John  126.  Byzantine  monu- 
ments (list)  134.  Cathedral 
308.  Early  Christian  monu- 
ments 118.  S.  Apollinare 
Nuovo,  S.  Apollinare  in  Classe 
115,  163,  S.  Vitale  117,  122,  127, 

174  (73,  75) 

REGGIO.    Amphitheatre  91 
REIMS   108.     Cathedral   193,  200, 
204,  205,  206,  208;  portals  211, 
212;  size  209;  towers  212;  west 
front  211,  216,  231 
RHAMNUS.      Themis    temple    56 

note 

RIMINI.  S.  Francesco  282 
ROCHESTER.  Cathedral  229 
RODEZ.  Cathedral  200,  214 
ROME.  Ancient  monuments  (list) 
108.  AMPHITHEATRES:  —  Fla- 
vian (colosseum)  91,  92,  103, 
290  (45,  62)  ;  of  Statilius  Tau- 
rus 101.  ARCHES: — in  general 
76,  91,  102;  of  Constantine  81, 
!O3  (63)  ;  of  Septimius  Se- 
vertis  103;  of  Titus  91,  103;  of 
Trajan  97,  103.  Atrium  Vestae 
106.  BASILICAS  : — in  general 
76,  97;  Basilica  /Emilia  98;  of 
Constantine  xxiii.  82,  98,  99 
(50  b.  58,  59)  ;  Julian  98;  Sem- 
pronian  98;  of  Trajan  (or  Ul- 
pian)  92,  97,  98  (57).  (For 
early  Christian  basilicas  see 
churches.)  BATHS  (Thermae)  : 
— in  general  76,  92,  98 ;  of 
Agrippa  91,  99;  of  Caracalla 
87,  92,  100  (60)  ;  of  Diocle- 
tian 92,  100;  of  Gallic-tins 


("Minerva  Medica")  122 
note,  127;  of  Titus  86,  91,  99, 
105.  Bridges  107.  Campaniles 
163;  of  Campidoglio  (capitol) 
310.  Capitol  91  ;  palaces  on 
same  304.  Castle  of  St.  Angelo 
104.  CHURCHES  : — in  general 
ill,  298;  church  of  Gesu  305; 
Sistine  Chapel  of  Vatican  293 ; 
Sta.  Agnese  (basilica)  113; 
(modern  church)  308;  S. 
Agostino  291 ;  S.  Clemente 
114;  Sta.  Castanza  ill  (66); 
St.  John  Lateran  113,  308,  310; 
cloisters  of  same  285 ;  S.  Lo- 
renzo 113,  114;  S.  Lorenzo  in 
Miranda  93;  S.  Marco,  porch 
290;  Sta.  Maria  degli  Angeli 
100;  Sta.  Maria  dell'  Anima, 
tower  311;  Sta.  Maria  Mag- 
giore  113,  310;  chapel  of  Six- 
tus  V.  in  same  301 ;  Sta.  Ma- 
ria della  Pace  295 ;  Sta.  Maria 
del  Popolo  291 ;  Chigi  chapel 
in  same  298 ;  tombs  in  same 
286;  Sta.  Maria  della  Vittoria 
308;  Sta.  Maria  Sopra  Minerva 
261;  St.  Paul-beyond-the- 
Walls  113,  285  (67,  68)  ;  St. 
Peter's,  original  basilica  113; 
existing  church  of  279,  280, 
293,  294,  298,  303,  304,  328  (174, 
175,  176)  ;  colonnade  of  same 
300,  307,  375 ;  sacristy  of  same 
310;  S.  Pietro  in  Montorio, 
Tempietto  in  court  of  293 ;  S. 
Stefano  Rotondo  136.  Circus 
of  Caligula  and  Nero  102,  113; 
Circus  Maximus  102.  Cloaca 
Maxima  82,  90.  Colosseum  or 
Flavian  Amphitheatre  (see 


462 


INDEX. 


AMPHITHEATRES).  COLUMNS: 
— of  Marcus  Aurelius  103 ;  of 
Trajan  97,  103.  Early  Chris- 
tian monuments  in;  list  of 
same  n&  FORA: — in  general 
96;  of  Augustus  91,  96;  of 
Julius,  Nerva,  Vespasian  96 ; 
Forum  Romanum  (or  Mag- 
num) 96,  98,  103;  of  Trajan 
96,  97,  98  (57).  FOUNTAINS: 
— Fonte  (or  Acqua)  Felice, 
Fonte  (or  Acqua)  Paolina 
309;  Fountain  of  Trevi  309, 
310.  HOUSES  : — in  general  104, 
106,  107;  of  Vestals  (Atrium 
Vestse)  94,  106;  of  Livia  (or 
Germanicus)  106.  Lateran, 
carved  ornament  from  Museum 
of  (49)  ;  palace  of  304.  Mau- 
soleum of  Augustus,  of  Ha- 
drian 104.  Minor  works  of 
Renaissance  in  Rome  291. 
Monument  of  Victor  Emman- 
uel 391.  Museo  delle  Terme, 
paintings  107.  National  Mu- 
seum 391.  PALACES  (ancient)  : 
— of  Caesars  on  Palatine  86, 
91,  104;  of  Nero  (Golden 
House)  91,  99,  105;  Septi- 
zonium  105.  PALACES  (Renais- 
sance) : — in  general  296;  Al- 
temps  296;  Barberini  309,  310; 
of  Capitol  304;  Cancelleria 
294,  296;  Corsini  310;  Farncse 
296,  304  (172,  173)  ;  Farnesina 
296;  Giraud  294  (171)  ;  Laute, 
Massimi,  Palma  296;  Lateran, 
Quirinal  304;  Sacchetti  296; 
Sapienza  (University)  305. 
VATICAN: — Belvedere  (greater 
and  lesser  courts  of)  295; 


Braccio  Nuovo  295,  310,  373; 
Casino  del  Papa  in  gardens 
297 ;  Court  of  S.  Damaso  295 ; 
Giardino  della  Pigna  104;  Li- 
brary 295 ;  Loggie  294  note, 
295 ;  Scala  Reggia  310.  Pa- 
lazzo di  Venezia  290.  Pan- 
theon 83,  91,  92,  94,  96,  99,  113, 
118,  122,  124,  127,  131,  310,  373 
(54»  55.  56).  Pons  /Elius 
(Ponte  S.  Angelo)  107.  Porta 
Maggiore  108.  Portico  of 
Octavia  91.  Septa  Julia  91. 
Septizonium  105.  TEMPLES  : — 
of  Castor  and  Pollux  (Dios- 
curi) 85,  91,  93  (44)  ;  of  Con- 
cord 93 ;  of  Faustina  93 ;  of 
Fortuna  Virilis  89,  90,  93  (51)  ; 
of  Hercules  or  "  Vesta  "  90 ; 
of  Julius  93  ;  of  Jupiter  Capito- 
linus  69,  89,  91  ;  of  Jupiter 
Stator  so-called  (see  T.  of 
Castor  and  Pollux)  ;  of  Jupiter 
Tonans  91 ;  of  Mars  Ultor  91 ; 
of  "Minerva  Medica "  (Baths 
of  Gallienus)  122  note,  127;  of 
Peace  98;  of  Trajan  97;  of 
Venus  and  Rome  94  (53)  ;  of 
Vesta  in  Forum  94;  of  "Vesta" 
or  Hercules  90.  THEATRES  : — 
in  general  100;  of  Marcellus 
91,  101  (42)  ;  of  Mummius 
100;  of  Pompey  101.  TOMBS: 
— 86,104;  of  Augustus, of  Caius 
Sextius,  of  Cecilia  Metella,  of 
Hadrian  104;  of  Helena  118. 
VILLAS: — in  general  105,  107, 
297 ;  Albani,  Borghese  309 ; 
Lante,  Madama,  Medici,  Pia, 
Pope  Julius  297 
ROSENROKG.  Castle  344 


INDEX. 


463 


ROSHEIM.    Church  fagade  177 
ROTHENBURG.    Town  hall  352 
ROUEN  316.     Cathedral  195,  200, 
204,    208;    open    gable    (130); 
rose  windows  215 ;  size  of  209; 
west  front  210.     Hotel  Bourg- 
theroude  322.    Palais  de  Justice 
217.      St.     Maclou    216.      St. 
Ouen  216,  383;   rose   window 
from  same  (215) 
ROUHEIHA.      Early    Christian 

church  116 
ROYAL  DOMAIN  167 
RUANWALLI.    Topes  418 
RUE.    Chapel  of  St.  Esprit  216 
RUSSIA    374.      Byzantine    monu- 
ments 134 


SADRI.    Temple  421 

SAKKARAH.    Pyramid  8 

SALAMANCA.  Casa  de  las  Conchas 
357.  Cathedral  (old)  182,253; 
(new)  254,  356.  Collegio  de 
las  Irlandeses  358.  Monastery 
of  S.  Girolamo  356.  S.  Domin- 
go 356.  University  357 ;  portal 
of  same  (202) 

SALISBURY.  Cathedral  224,  225, 
229,  233  (132)  ;  chapter  house 
228  (137);  cloister  (137); 
spire  232,  233,  237 ;  transepts 
235 ;  west  front  232.  Market 
cross  239 

SALONICA.  Church  of  St.  George 
118.  Other  monuments  (list) 

134 

SALSETTE.    Viharas  420 

SALZBURG.  Church  of  St.  Fran- 
cis 246 

SAMARKHAND  146 


SAMOS.    Gate  45 

SANCHI.     Brahman   temple  419. 

Tope  418 

SAN  GOLGANO.    Abbey  ruins  260 
SAN  ILDEFONSO.    Palace  360 
SARAGOSSA.    Casa  de  Zaporte  357 

(203) 

SAXONY  175 

SCHALABURG.    Castle  347 
SCHETTSTADT.     Cathedral  244 
SCHLOSS   HAMELSCHENBURG  348, 

352  (198) 

SCHLOSS  PORZIA  at  Spital  346 
SCHLOSS  STERN  at  Prague  347 
SCHWARZ-RHEINDORF.  Church  176 
SCHWEINFURTH.    Town  hail  352 

SciNDE  146 

SECUNDRA.  Tomb  of  Akbar  148 

SEDINGA.    Hathoric  columns  24 

SEEZ.    Cathedral  200 

SEGOVIA.  Cathedral  193,  254,  356. 
Church  of  S.  Millan,  of  Temp- 
lars 182 

SELINUS.  Temples  49,  56  note; 
northern  temple  62 ;  Zeus  tem- 
ple 62 

SEMNEH.    Pavilion  26 

SENLIS.    Cathedral  200,  203,  212 

SENS.  Archbishop's  palace  322. 
Cathedral  206,  209,  223 

SERBISTAN.  Sassanian  buildings 
144 

SERINGHAM.    Temple  426 

SEVILLE  141.  Alcazar  142,  143. 
Casa  de  Pilato  (House  of  Pi- 
late) 142,  358.  Cathedral  248, 
254,  262,  359.  Giralda  142,  143, 

359 

SFAX.    Mosques  140 
SHF.PREE.    Pathan  arches  148 
SMERBURNE.    Church  vaulting  227 


464 


INDEX. 


SHREWSBURY.    Abbey  180 
SICILY  62.    Moslem  buildings  144, 

162 

SIDON.  Sarcophagi  from  68 
SIENNA.  Brick  houses  272.  Cam- 
panile 270.  Cathedral  (Duomo) 
261,  264,  265,  266  (155)  ;  west 
front  265  (155).  Loggia  del 
Papa  286.  Minor  works  277, 
286.  PALACES  :  —  Buonsignori 
272;  Del  Governo,  Piccolomini, 
Spannocchi  286;  Grotanelli 
272;  Pal.  Pubblico  271;  Sara- 
ceni  272.  Renaissance  churches 
298.  S.  Giovanni  in  Fonte 
264 

SILCHESTER.    Roman  villa  108 
SILSILEH.    Grotto  temple  22 
SIVAS.     Ruins  in  148 
SOISSONS  Cathedral  200,  203,  206, 

208,  248 
SOMNATH.    Jaina  temple  421 

SOMNATHPUR.      Temples  424 

SOUTHWELL.  Minster  180;  carv- 
ing from  same  (118) 

SPAIN  141,  355.  Gothic  monu- 
ments (list)  257.  Romanesque 
churches  181,  182 

SPALATO.  Palace  of  Diocletian 
92,  105,  114  (64) 

SPITAL.    Schloss  Porzia  347 

SPIRES  (Speyer).  Cathedral  176 
(103) 

ST.  ALBAN'S.  Tombs,  etc.,  in 
Abbey  239 

ST.  AUGUSTINE.  Fort  Marion  (S. 
Marco)  400.  Hotel  Ponce  de 
Leon  412.  Cathedral  400 

ST.  BENOIT  -  SUR  -  LOIRE.  Ante- 
church  179 

ST.    DENIS.    Abbey    (now   cathe- 


dral) 200,  201,  203,  205,  206 
(123)  ;  tomb  of  Louis  XII.  in 
same  322 ;  of  Francis  I.  323 

ST.  GERMAIN-EN-LAYE.  Chateau 
319;  royal  chapel  in  same  207 

ST.  GILLES  (near  Aries).  Church 
167 

ST.  Louis  (Mo.,  U.  S.  A.) .  Union 
Trust  Building  409.  Washing- 
ton University  413 

ST.  PAUL  (Minn.,  U.  S.  A.). 
Minnesota  State  Capitol  413 

ST.  PETERSBURG  374,  375.  Ad- 
miralty 375.  Cathedral  of  St. 
Isaac  375  (212).  CHURCHES: 
— of  the  Citadel,  of  the  Greek 
Rite  374;  of  Our  Lady  of  Ka- 
zan 375.  New  Museum,  Palace 
of  Grand  Duke  Michael  375. 
Smolnoy  Monastery  377 

ST.  REMY  108.    Tombs  104 

STABILE  92 

STENDAL.    Cathedral  245 

STOCKHOLM.    Palace  344 

STRASBURG.  Cathedral  248 ;  pul- 
pit in  same  (116)  ;  spire  of 
same  243,  245,  246,  248.  Uni- 
versity buildings  384 

STUTTGART.  Old  Castle  351. 
Technical  School  384 

STYRIA  347 

SULLY.    Chateau  323 

SULTANIYEH.    Tomb  145 

SUNIUM.    PropyL-ea  70 

SUSA  145.    Palaces  35,  38 

SYRACUSE.    Theatre  71 

SYRIA  92,  114,  122.  Early  Chris- 
tian churches  115,  116,  117;  list 
of  same  1 19 

TABRIZ.     Ruined  mosque  145 


INDEX. 


465 


TAFKHAH.     Early  Christian 

church  116 

TAKT-I-BAHI.    Monastery  419 
TANGERMUNDE.    Church  249 
TANJORE.       Great     temple     426. 

Palaces   427.      Shrine   of   Sou- 

bramanya  426  (235) 
TARPUTRY.    Gopura  426 
TEBESSA  108 
TEHERAN  146 
TEL-EL-AMARNA  27 
TELMISSUS.    Tomb  39 
TEWKESBURY.      Abbey    180,    226 

d35) 
THEBES.   Amenopheum  15.   Ram- 

esseum  15  (8) 
THIBET.    Lamaseries  429 
THORICUS.    Gate  45.     Stoa  Diple 

70 
TIBUR.     See  TIVOLI 

TlMGAD   IO8 

TINNEVELLY.     Dravidian  temples 

426 
TIRUVALUR.      Dravidian    temples 

426 

TIRYNS  43,  44,  45,  47 
TIVOLI.     Circular  temple  90,  366 


TI.EMCEN.     Mosques  140 

TODI.  Madonna  della  Consola- 
zione  298 

TOKIO.    Great  Palace  430 

TOLEDO  141.  Archbishop's  Palace 
358.  Cathedral  193,  253.  Gate 
of  S.  Martino  358.  Hospital  of 
Sta.  Cruz  356.  S.  Juan  de  los 
Reyes  256 

TONNERRE.      Hospital  217 

TORCELI.O.    Campanile  163 
TORGAT.    Ilartcnfels  Castle  350 
TOKO.     Collegiate  church  182 


TOULOUSE.  Cathedral  207,  214. 
Church  of  St.  Sernin  167,  204 
(too).  Houses  323 

TOURNAY.  Cathedral  193,  251 ; 
rood-screen  in  same  342 

TOURS  316.  Cathedral  200,  208, 
2ll ;  tomb  of  children  of 
Charles  VIII.  in  same  316; 
towers  of  same  319;  west  front 
of  same  216 

TRACSNITZ.    Castle  350 

TREVES  (Trier).  Cathedral  177. 
Frauenkirche  (Liebfraucn- 
kirche.  Church  of  Our  Lady) 
193,  247,  248  (147).  Porta 
Nigra  108 

TROY  43,  44 

TROYES.  Cathedral  200,  204,  208 ; 
fac,ade  216;  size  of  same  209; 
west  portals  211.  Ste.  Made- 
leine 216.  St.  Urbain  215 

TRUNCH.    Church  ceiling  238 

TUCSON.    Church  360 

TUPARAMAYA.    Topes  418 

TURIN.  Church  of  La  Superga 
373 

TURKEY  149.     Monuments  (list) 

154 

TUSCULUM.    Amphitheatre  92 
TYROL  346,  347 

UDAIPUR   (near  Bhilsa).     Hindu 

temples  424 
Ui  M.     Cathedral   (Minster)  243, 

244,  248;  spire  of  same  246 
ITR  30 

URIUNO.     Ducal  palace  291 
UTRECHT.    Cathedral  249 

VALENCIA  141.    Cathedral  254 
VALLADOLID.     Cathedral   358.     S. 
Gregorio,  portal  (151) 


466 


INDEX. 


VELLORE.    Gopnra  426 

VENDOME.    Cathedral,  portal  211 

VENETIA  157,  267,  311 

VENICE  305.  Gothic  style  in  260, 
272,  273 ;  tracery  268.  Cam- 
paniles 163 ;  of  St.  Mark,  of  S. 
Giorgio  Maggiore  311. 
CHURCHES  : — Frari  S.  M.  (Glo- 
riosa  dei  Frari)  261 ;  Reden- 
tore  304;  S.  Giobbe  289;  S. 
Giorgio  dei  Grechi  298 ;  S. 
Giorgio  Maggiore  304,  311  ;  SS. 
Giovanni  e  Paolo  261  ;  Sta. 
Maria  Formosa  298;  S.  M.  dei 
Miracoli  288,  289;  S.  M.  della 
Salute  308  (179);  St.  Mark's 
132,  164,  273,  289  (79,  80)  ;  Li- 
brary of  same  305  (177)  ;  S. 
Salvatore  298 ;  S.  Zaccaria  288. 
Doge's  Palace  273,  289  (162). 
Minor  works  291.  PALACES  : — 
in  general  273,  289;  Ca  d'Oro, 
Cavalli,  Contarini-Fasan  273 ; 
Cornaro  (Corner  de  Ca 
Grande)  305;  Dario  290;  Du- 
cale  (Doge's  Palace)  273,  289 
(162);  Foscari  273;  Grimani 
305;  Pesaro  309;  Pisano  273; 
Rezzonico  309;  Vendramini 
(Vendramin-Calergi)  290 
(170)  ;  Zorzi,  capital  from 
(163).  Scuola  di  S.  Marco 
288 

VEKCELLI.    S.  Andrea  261,  268 

VEKNEUIL.    Chateau  323 

VERONA  157,  163.  Amphitheatre 
91,  102.  Campanile  163,  270. 
Church  of  Sta.  Anastasia  261, 
263;  of  S.  Zcno  159,  1 60,  163, 
177.  Gates  305.  PALACES: — 
in  general  288;  Bcvilacqua, 


Canossa  305 ;  del  Consiglio 
291 ;  Pompei,  Verzi  305.  Tombs 
of  Scaligers  269 

VERSAILLES.  Palace  326.  Petit 
Trianon  370 

VEZELAY.  Abbey  church  168,  170, 
179,  201,  206 

VICENZA  305,  306.  Basilica  306. 
PALACES  : — in  general  288,  305  ; 
Barbarano,  Chieregati,  Prefet- 
izzio,  Tiene,  Valmarano  306. 
Villa  Capra  306,  336 

VIENNA  354,  355,  385.  Arsenal 
at  Wiener  Neustadt  347.  Burg- 
theater  384.  Cathedral  (St. 
Stephen)  244,  245,  246,  250; 
spire  of  same  245.  Church  of 
St.  Charles  Borromeo  367.  Im- 
perial Library  354.  Imperial 
Palace,  portal  347.  Museums 
384.  Opera  house  384.  Pal- 
aces 354.  Parliament  House 
(Reichsrathsgebaude)  369,  384. 
Residence  block  (Maria-There- 
sienhof)  386  (219).  Sta.  Ma- 
ria in  Gestade  250.  Town  hall 
386.  University  384,  386.  Vo- 
tiv-Kirche  383 

VlJAYANAGAR.      Palace  427 

VINCENNES.    Royal  chapel  207 
VITERBO.    Fountains  309.   Houses 
272.      Town    hall    (Pal.    Com- 
munale)  271.    Villa  Lante  297 
VOLTERRA.     (Volaterrre).       Gate 


WALTHAM.  Abbey  180.  Elea- 
nor's Cross  239 

WARFIELU.  St.  Michael's,  win- 
dow (114) 


INDEX. 


467 


WARKA  (Erech).  Palace  ter- 
races 31 

WARTBURG.    Castle  178 

WASHINGTON  (D.  C,  U.  S.  A.). 
Capitol  401,  403,  404  (225)  ; 
dome  403.  Congressional  Li- 
brary 412,  414.  Patent  Office 
402.  State,  Army  and  Navy 
Building  404.  Treasury  402. 
White  House  402 

WELLS.  Cathedral  226,  230,  236; 
chapter  house  228  (136)  ;  west 
front  232 

WESTMINSTER.    See  LONDON 

WESTONZOYLAND.  Ceiling  of  St. 
Mary's  (143) 

WESTOVER.    House  398 

WEST  POINT  (N.  Y.,  U.  S.  A.). 
Military  Academy  413 

WIENER-NEUSTADT.    See  VIENNA 

WILLIAM SBURG  (Va.,  U.  S.  A.). 
Town  hall  397 

WILTON  HOUSE  337 

WINCHESTER.  Cathedral  180,  224, 
226,  230,  233  (106)  ;  tombs,  etc., 
in  same  239.  Market  Cross 
239 


WINDSOR.     St.   George's    Chapel 

227,231,  238  (138) 
WISMAR.      Castle    (Fiirstenhof) 

350.    City  Gates  250 
WOBURN.    Public  Library  (228) 
WOLLATON  HALL  335 
WOLFENBUTTEL.         Marieiikirche 

352 

WOLTERTON.    Castle  334 
WORANGUL.    Kurti  Stambha  425 
WORCESTER.    Cathedral  236 
WORMS.    Minster  (cathedral)  176 

(102) 
WURZBURG.      University    Church 

353 

XANTEN.    Church  247 
XANTHUS.    Nereid  monument  72 

YORK.  Cathedral  105,  229,  231 ; 
chapter  house  228;  minor  works 
in  229;  tower  232;  west  front 
231 

YPRES.    Cloth  hall  252 

ZURICH.    Polytechnic  School  384 
ZWETTL.    Abbey  245,  246,  247 


UCLA-AUPt 

NA  200  H18t  1909 


L  005  856  758  7 


